MICROBIAL ASSESSMENT OF FINAL DISCHARGE ABATTOIR WASTEWATER

 MICROBIAL ASSESSMENT OF FINAL DISCHARGE ABATTOIR WASTEWATER

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

 

In recent times, there has been an increase in environmental problems associated with pollution of land, water and air. Water pollution particularly has attracted researchers from diverse disciplines in Nigeria over the years. Such works include Ajayi and Osibanji (1981); Omole and Longe (2008); Ezemonye (2009); Chima, Ogbonna and Nwankwo (2009); Ezenwanji and Orji (2010); Chukwu (2010); Obeta and Ajaero (2010); Galadima, Garba, Leke, Almustapha and Adam (2011); Omole and Isiorho (2011); Chikogu, Adamu and Vivan (2012); Ojo and Adeniyi (2012); Ekere (2012) and Amadi (2012). Pollution of water bodies is a serious environmental problem especially in developing countries where there is improper waste management and the disposal of wastes into water bodies is very common. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2010) estimates that about a quarter of the diseases facing mankind today occur due to prolonged exposure to water pollution. One of such water pollutants is abattoir effluent.

Abattoir Acts of United States Environmental Protection Agency, USEPA (1988) defines abattoir as any premises used for or in connection with the slaughter of animals whose meat is intended for human consumption and include a slaughter house but does not include a place situated in a farm. The terms ‘slaughterhouse’ and ‘abattoir’ are synonymous and are used interchangeably (Cowi, 2001). Coker, Olusaga and Adeyemi (2001) define abattoir wastewater (also known as effluent) as water that has been used in cleaning up of slaughtered cattle, sheep, goat and pig carcasses, the floor of slaughter hall, personnel and slaughter equipment. Effluents in meat processing plants originate from lairage, slaughter and bleeding, dressing, paunch handling, rendering, processing and cleaning (Irshad, 2013). The major sources of waste in the meat processing industry are from animal care, killing, hide or hair removal, eviscerating, carcass washing, trimming and clean-up operations (USEPA, 2004). It has been reported that discharge of large quantities of wastewater is common environmental issue to all slaughterhouses (Cowi, 2001). In the slaughter process basically the following by-products and waste products become available: manure, contents of rumen and intestines, edible products such as blood and liver, inedible products such as hair, bones, feathers; fat (recovered from the wastewater by means of fat-separators) and wastewater (FAO, 1996).

 

Though slaughtering of animals result in meat supply and useful by-products like leather and skin, livestock waste spills can introduce enteric pathogens and excess nutrients into surface water and can also contaminate groundwater (Meadows, 1995). For instance, Adegbola and Adewoye (2012) states that the incidence of waterborne diseases arising from pollution of shallow wells in abattoir environment has been on the increase in Ogbomoso community and had called for proper treatment of abattoir effluent before disposal.

 

Irshad (2013) categorises effluents into four, these include; non-toxic and not directly pollutant but liable to disturb the physical nature of the receiving water, non-toxic and pollutant due to organic matter content of high oxygen demand, toxic – containing highly poisonous materials and toxic and pollutant due to organic matter of high oxygen demand and toxic in addition. He therefore stressed that efficient disposal of effluent from meat plants and meat processing works is important because of the possible pollution of water courses. Hence, an effluent treatment plant (ETP) is necessary in all modern abattoir and meat plants. The objective of effluent treatment according to him, is to produce a product that can be safely discharged into a water way or sewer in compliance with the recommended limits of discharge.

 

Charges for slaughtering in abattoirs in developing countries are often kept low to prevent illegal slaughtering. Furthermore, slaughter fees constitute a source of income for the municipality. Unfortunately, these funds are not used for the operation and maintenance of the abattoir; abattoirs have difficulties in maintaining certain standards (FAO, 1996). This further explains the reason for poor management of abattoir as several reports have shown direct or indirect channeling of untreated abattoir effluent into surface water bodies and inappropriate disposal of other wastes generated from its activities (Raheem and Morenikeji, 2008, Kosamu, Mawenda, and Mapoma 2011, Muhibbu-Din, Aduwo and Adedeyi, 2011, Nafarnda, Ajayi, Shawulu, Kawe, Omeiza, Sani, Tenuche, Daton and Tags, 2012, Koech, Ogendi, and Kipkemboi, 2012).

 

Section 16 and 17 of Act 58 of December 1988 (which established the then Federal Environmental Protection Agency – FEPA now Federal Ministry of Environment – FMENV) mandated it to protect, restore and preserve the quality of streams and ecosystems of Nigeria environment (FMENV, 1991). UN (2014) stresses the need to adopt measures to significantly reduce water pollution and increase water quality and significantly improve wastewater treatment. Currently, efforts are being made in the state to ensure the provision of adequate water to the populace. For instance, the Enugu State Water Corporation quarterly, subject the water (tap water and the one supplied by tanker and sometimes well water) available to people in the state to laboratory test to establish its suitability for domestic use. The Enugu State Ministry of Environment (EMENV) on the other hand, is (presently) working on a project to ascertain the extent of surface water pollution in Enugu urban. This project which is yet to be completed (as at May, 2016) covers about thirteen rivers/streams in Enugu urban. Plate 1 shows one of the sampling stations along Asata stream very close to the discharge point of Abattoir ‘A’. Sadly, the pollution level of surface waters in the state is on the increase as the disposal of wastes especially untreated abattoir effluent into the surface streams continues unabated.

 

Plate 1: Sign post showing a sampling station along Asata stream by Enugu State Ministry of Environment (N6⁰27’15.79”and E007⁰32’31.94”)

1.2    Statement of the Research Problem

Abattoir is a necessary facility especially in cities where the demand for meat and similar products are constantly on the increase due to their large populations. The provision of meat is important in human diet but the activities that bring about its supply should be important too especially regarding the disposal of the liquid waste associated with it. Mere location or establishment of abattoir in an area however, does not pose any environmental challenge but when the abattoir is established without adequate facilities to properly manage its activities, it becomes detrimental to the environment and man. It has now become the norm to either directly or indirectly disposes effluent from abattoirs into surface waters in the country without any form of treatment. Abattoir activities require large amount of water which equally bring about large amount of wastewater at the end of its operations.

 

Even though the FMENV has been mandated to protect the waters of Nigeria (among others), the disposal of untreated abattoir effluent into the environment has not been given full attention as there is yet to be strict actions to checkmate abattoir activities in many parts of the country. Despite its importance in revenue generation for the state, the New Artisan abattoirs lack facilities of a modern abattoir. The disposal of untreated abattoir liquid waste which is common here has some environmental implications.

Blood and faeces are among the major contents in abattoir wastewater. These pollutants can alter the quality of stream water and make it unfit for certain usage. Considering that the New Artisan market is one of the major suppliers of red meat (and live animals) in Enugu town, it is expected that ten years after its commission for operations, the activities at the abattoirs with regards to the number of animals slaughtered will increase which in turn will increase the quantity of effluent generated per day. It is therefore pertinent that we examine its impact on the quality of Asata and Owo streams in Enugu, South Eastern Nigeria.

 

This work is also especially important at this time since 2015 marked the end for the actualization of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It therefore will serve as an appraisal and then be taken into consideration for the Post-2015 Global Goal for Water. Moreover, UN (2014) clearly states that water is at the core of sustainable development and is critical for socio-economic development, healthy ecosystem and for human survival itself. More so, it is vital for reducing the global burden of disease and improving the health, welfare and productivity of population. Therefore in order to ensure the availability and sustainable usage of Asata and Owo streams in Enugu Urban, abattoir activities with respect to the discharge of untreated effluent should be checked so as to achieve Goal number six of the Sustainable Development Goals.

 

1.3        Aim and Objectives of the Study

 

The aim of this work is to examine the impact of abattoir effluent on the quality of Asata and Owo streams in Enugu. In order to achieve this aim, the following objectives were pursued to;

 

• Describe Asata and Owo streams and their uses.

 

• Determine water quality changes due to abattoir effluent.

 

• Determine the seasonal variation in the quality of the two streams.

 

• Discuss the health and environmental implications of the effluent discharged into the streams.

 

1.4         THE STUDY AREA

 

1.4.1     Location and Size

 

Asata and Owo streams are in Enugu North Local Government Area of Enugu state (Fig.1). Enugu North is located approximately between Latitudes 06^o 25’N and 06^o 29^’N of the equator and Longitudes 7^o34’E and 7^o36’E of the Greenwich Meridian (Fig. 2). The study area covers about 56.6sq km. Abattoir ‘A’ is located on Latitudes 6^o 27’ 15.90^’ N and Longitudes 7^o 32^′ 30.60^′′ E while abattoir ‘B’ is located on Latitudes 6^o 27^′ 8.26^′′ N and Longitudes 7^o 32^′ 33.58^′′ E (Figs. 3a and 3b).

 

1.4.2    Climate

Enugu North has tropical wet and dry type of climate according to the Koppen’s climatic classification system and experiences two seasons which are warm. Rainy season lasts between March and October and dry season between November and February being eight and four months respectively. It has an average rainfall of between 1800m and 2000m (Monanu, 1975b; Anyadike, 2002). The study area has a double peak regime of rainfall in the year with about eight months of heavy rainfall. That is, between March and October when monthly rainfalls generally exceeds 50mm. The rainfall regime operates in obedience to the apparent seasonal migration of the overhead sun but normally with a time lag (Anyadike, 2002). From July – August, the tropical maritime air mass (mT) blowing over the study area has little propensity to rise for the apparent movement of the sun is not overhead to initiate convective cells. Consequently, they are supposed to drop little convective rainfall over the study area during this period known as August Break. The second period of maximum rainfall, though less pronounced than the first lasts from September – October with about 30% of the annual rainfall. Four months in the study area belong to the long dry season lasting from November – March. Due to its latitudinal location, the study area receives abundant and constant insolation. Monthly mean temperatures are uniformly high throughout the year (about 26.9^oC) but ranging from about 25.5^oC in the middle of the wet season to about 29.5^oC just before the onset of the rainy season. The mean monthly maximum temperature is about 32^oC. The mean monthly minimum temperature is about 21.8^oC but ranges generally from 18^oC in December and January (dry season) to 24^oC in March and April.

Fig. 1: Enugu State showing the Study Area (Enugu North L.G.A)

 

Source: GIS Unit, Department of Geography, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

 

 

Fig. 2: Enugu North L.G.A

 

Source: GIS Unit, Department of Geography, University of Nigeria Nsukka.

 

1.4.3   Relief and Drainage

 

The relief of the study area is classified into the escarpment zone and the plains and lowlands. The escarpment zone is part of Nsukka-Okigwe cuesta (Ofomata, 1975). Asata stream is one of the main river systems that drain the city of Enugu. The stream has its headwaters in the scarp slope at an elevation of approximately 300m in the western part of Enugu. Asata stream is about 18.3km and it flows northeast first for almost 5km before receiving its first east flowing 4.2km Ogbete tributary that drain Ogbete layout, Ogbete main market and parts of the CBD. It then continues for about 3.8km north east where it receives its second east flowing 5km Aria tributary. Following a meandering channel pattern, the Asata stream then flows eastward for about 9.5km where it discharges into the Ekulu River. The Asata stream with its two main tributaries (Ogbete and Aria) flow through the main parts of Enugu urban to drain Uwani, parts of Ogbete, Ogui Nike layout, Ogui urban area, Ogui new layout, Independence Layout and New Haven area. The nature of the rocks over which the streams flow controls the drainage pattern of the study area. Because the rocks are sedimentary

formations composed of homogeneous strata of similar resistance to erosion, the tributary streams join the main river obliquely. The system of drainage network so evolved is characteristically dendritic. The streams receive their main supplies of water during the rainy season and mainly from convective rainstorms. Consequently, these streams suffer from extreme seasonal fluctuations in discharge magnitude Ezemonye (2009) and Chukwu (2010). Owo stream on the other hand is about 4.38km long and has its headwaters behind Okpara Square (approximately at Latitudes 06⁰ 26’ 28.84”N of the equator and Longitudes 7⁰31’13.62”E of the Greenwich Meridian). It flows eastwards at a distance of about 1.24km where it receives its one and only tributary. Then it continued for a distance of about 3.14km where it finally joined the Asata stream. It is highly affected by season.

 

1.4.4     Vegetation and Soil

 

The vegetation of the study area is derived savanna with fringing forests along the river courses (Igbozurike, 1978). It falls within the rainforest ecotone. Between 60 and 70 percent of the vegetation in the study area is grass. The predominant grass species include; Hyparrheniumspecies, Andropogon species and Peninsetum purpureum.The dominant tree along Asata and Owo rivers is Bambusa vulgaris. The type of soil seen were derived from the underlying rock formation; ferallitic soils, lithosols and hydromorphic soils are the three types of soil that can be distinguished within the study area (Ofomata, 2002).

 

1.4.5     Population

 

Enugu North has been growing at a phenomenal rate of 5% per annum (NPC, 2006). Obienusi (2008) in Chukwu (2010) explains that this increase can be explained by three major factors; interactive population flows consisting of natural change especially birth and death rates, area differentiation of population of the urban environment in contrast to the rural and population migration. Since urban dwellers are less likely to move than their rural counterparts, the population of Enugu North is therefore increasing in number as a result of rural – urban migration and employment opportunities in the city. The result of the 2006 national population and housing census exercise showed that the population of Enugu urban was 722, 664 giving an average population density of about 2,800 person per sq. km.

 

1.4.6     Economic Activities

 

Being the administrative headquarter of the local government and seat of government of the state as the state capital, Enugu North is occupied by people of different occupations. There are many banks and most of them have their main branch in Enugu North. There are civil servants as well as traders of different hierarchy. Enugu North has seven major market areas. They are Ogbete market, New market, Old Artisan, Ama Hausa, Ahia nine, Mami and the New Artisan. There are abattoirs in these market areas. The abattoirs in Ogbete and Old Artisan markets channel their effluent into the Ogbete River which is also a tributary of Asata stream. Even though there are abattoirs in these places within Enugu North, they sometimes buy goat meat from the New Artisan abattoir. This is one of the reasons the New Artisan abattoir is always busy with the slaughtering of goats. The New artisan abattoir as a result sometimes supplies meat to Ogbete market, New market, Ngwo, Abakpa, Garki and Ahia nine.

 

1.4.6.1 History of the New Artisan Market

 

The market is officially known as Ebeano Livestock Market but commonly called the New Artisan Market. It was commissioned on the 24^th of March 2005 by the then governor of the state (see Plate 2). The event that brought the idea of the new artisan market was the conflict that broke between the Igbos and the Hausas at the Old Artisan Market (Ogui Road) which led to the death of one person in the process of police intervention. The state government after the incident thought it wise to decongest the Old Artisan as it was overly populated. The market is therefore an extension of the Old Artisan, therefore the common name New Artisan. The market which has about two thousand five hundred (2,500) shops with two (2) private (licensed) abattoirs had signed agreement at its inception that the Igbos will maintain its chairmanship and vice by the Hausas. Its first chairman and vice chairman were Chief Monday Ani (late) and Babangida Bakari (late) respectively. Aside these two main officials, there is also sectional chairmen among the two tribes (Nevo and Wigwe, 2015).

 

Plate 2: Foundation Stone of the New Artisan Market

 

1.4.6.2 The abattoirs and their activities

 

The New Artisan market is a major market in Enugu town especially as it concerns meat supply both live and slaughtered. In fact it is also known as cattle market. On a daily basis, there is supply of about 4 to 5 trailer loads of goats and one trailer load of cow from the northern part of the country. It is important here to mention that the crises in the North-east affect its supply. A trailer load of goat contains between four hundred to seven hundred goats depending on their sizes while that of cow is between thirty to forty cows. People come from Aba, Port Harcourt, Abakaliki and Umuahia to buy live goats twice a week (Mondays and Thursdays precisely). The abattoirs operate daily. Each day their operation starts as early as 4:00am (except during weekends when they start earlier) till about 11:00am. Cows, goats and pigs are slaughtered at the two abattoirs but abattoir ‘A’ slaughters mainly goats and is controlled by the Igbo butchers while abattoir ‘B’ slaughters cows mainly and is controlled by the Hausa butchers.

Bood and other wastes from the butchered animals are washed into the shallow channels encircling the platform. At the two abattoirs, animals are slaughtered in the open (Plate 3). At abattoir ‘A’, immediately the animals (with the exception of cows) are slaughtered, they are thrown into an open fire made with old tyres to remove the hairs (Plate 4). Sometimes, the cows are first deskinned before it (the skin) is thrown into open fire for hair removal (Plate 5). The burnt goats are then washed on the slab (Plate 6). During washing at abattoir ‘A’, the animal blood and wash water enter into the channels created around the slaughter slab (Plate 7). The effluent generated is blocked from entering the river immediately (Plate 8). The accumulated effluent would later be released into the river and with great pressure it washes down solid wastes along (Plate 9). Sometimes the intestines of the slaughtered animals are washed directly in the river (Plate 10). Usually, this happens when the slaughter slab has been washed after the day’s work.

 

At abattoir ‘B’, the effluent enters into the river as they are slaughtering and washing the animals (Plates 11a and 11b). Usually, animals slaughtered during weekends are more than those of the weekdays. About sixty to seventy goats are slaughtered daily. But Sundays has the highest number of animals slaughtered (about double of weekday slaughter) as there is more sales on Sundays.

Plate 3: Slaughtering of cow (Abattoir ‘B’)                        Plate 4: Slaughtered goats thrown into fire (Abattoir “A”)

Plate 5: Deskinning of cow                                                        Plate 6: Washing of the slaughtered goats (Abattoir ‘A’)

Plate 7: Channel created around the slaughter slab

(Abattoir   ‘A’)

 

Plate 8: Effluent blocked from entering into the stream immediately (Abattoir ‘A’)

 

Plate 9: Effluent released into Asata stream immediately

(Abattoir ‘A’)

 

Plate 10: Slaughtered animals’ intestines washed in Asata stream

 

Plate 11a: Effluent entering into Owo stream

Plate 11b: Effluent channeled into Owo stream

1.5     Literature Review

Water is an important substance and which is without substitute. According to UN (2014), water is at the core of sustainable development and is critical for socio-economic development, healthy ecosystems and for human survival itself. It is vital for reducing the global burden of disease and improving the health, welfare and productivity of population. Ajayi and Osibanjo (1981) state that the bye products of agricultural activities, urbanization and industrialization result in pollution and degradation of the available water resources. In Nigeria, available reports have noted gross contamination of most river bodies across the nation as mentioned earlier by discharge of industrial effluent, sewage and agricultural wastes among others (World Bank, 1995). Similarly, Ezigbo (1989) and Amadi (2010) state that changes in water chemistry of rivers are usually anthropogenic via domestic, industrial and agricultural discharge which may in turn result to degradation of the aquatic ecosystem. Accordingly, Amadi (2012) posits that most of the surface water bodies in Nigeria are polluted as they serve as disposal sites for different kinds of wastes. Ajayi and Osibanji (1981) state that increase in industrial activities have led to pollutional stress on surface water both from industrial, agricultural and domestic sources. Major streams in industrial areas of some Nigerian cities are already seriously polluted by wastes from industries.

 

Ajayi and Osibanji (1981) also report that effluent discharges into the environment have been on the increase in Nigeria since 1960 due to active industrialization and urbanization and the accompanying increase in commercial activities such as abattoir operations, . The peculiar characteristic of these industrial estates is that most of them lack central waste treatment plants and therefore discharge their waste water directly or indirectly into water bodies. There is no enforcement of industrial pollution and hazardous waste laws because industrialization is wholly considered a key indicator of development (Olusegun, Osuala and Odeigah 2010). In line with the above, Nwachukwu, Akpata and Essien (1989) state that the rush by African countries to industrialize have resulted in discharge of partially treated or raw wastes into the surrounding bodies of water since the development of treatment facilities cannot keep pace with the rate at which the wastes are generated by the industries.

 

Worldwide, water bodies are primary means for disposal of waste especially the effluent from industrial, municipal sewage and agricultural practices that are near them. This effluent can alter the physical chemical and biological nature of the receiving water body (Sangodoyin, 1991). Most urban areas of the developing world remain inadequately served by sewage treatment infrastructure (NDDC, 2004). Kanu and Achi (2011) state that one of the most critical problems of developing countries is improper management of vast amount of wastes generated by various anthropogenic activities. More challenging is the unsafe disposal of these wastes into the ambient environment water bodies especially fresh water reservoirs are most affected. According to Adelegan (2003), the large increase in industries in Nigeria have brought about a huge increases in the quantity of discharge and a wide diversity of types of pollutants reaching water bodies more so, the combined discharge of industrial and municipal waste in highly populated concentrated nodal points have undesirable effects on human and other organisms in the aquatic environment.

 

Gray (1989) explains that the initial effect of waste is to degrade physical quality of the water. Later biological degradation becomes evident in terms of number and variety and organization of the living organism in the water. The concern for increases in the level of pollutants in surface and groundwater is justified since a large proportion of rural and recently urban dwellers in Nigeria obtain domestic water, and sometimes drinking water from ponds, streams and shallow wells (Sangodoyin, 1990).

 

According to FAO (1996), discharge of wastewater to surface waters affects the water quality in three ways:

 

• The discharge of biodegradable organic compounds (BOCs) may cause a strong reduction of the amount of dissolved oxygen, which in turn may lead to reduced levels of activity or even death of aquatic life.

 

• Macro-nutrients (N, P) may cause eutrophication of the receiving water bodies. Excessive algae growth and subsequent dying off and mineralisation of these algae, may lead to the death of aquatic life because of oxygen depletion.

 

• Agro-industrial effluents may contain compounds that are directly toxic to aquatic life (e.g. tannins and chromium in tannery effluents; un-ionized ammonia).

 

Effluent discharge into water bodies in Nigeria has become a common practice. Many factories in Nigeria are located on river banks and use the rivers as open sewers for their effluents (Ogbomida and Emeribe, 2013). Amadi (2012) reports that Aba River receives all

 

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sorts of wastes-solid and liquid from industries, individuals and agricultural running. Similarly, Olusegun et al (2010) report that many industries in Lagos discharge their effluent into the different water bodies around the metropolis. Same is reported of Ikpoba River in Edo state which receives a variety of wastes ranging from industrial, agricultural, domestic and natural sources (Ekhaise and Anyasi, 2005). Nworie and Otamiri Rivers in Imo State are not left out as reported by Ogbomida and Emeribe (2013). The pollution of these rivers according to the authors has many factors brought about by the combination of industrialization and human population explosion.

 

Other reports include effluent discharges in Opa River (Muhibba-Din et al, 2011), Woji River (Obi and Ibe, 2011), Ogbete and Asata streams (Nwachukwu, 2012) in Ile-Ife, Port Harcourt and Enugu respectively. Pharmaceutical industry, soap and detergent industry, paper mill industry, textile mill effluent, brewery industry, tannery industrial effluent, soft drink effluent, chemical industry, organic wastes, palm oil mill effluent are sources of industrial effluent in Nigeria (Kanu and Achi, 2011).

 

Obi and Ibe (2011) report that there is increasing and non-stop pollution of Woji River by industrial, abattoir and sewage effluents and the susceptibility of the inhabitants of the water fronts along the river course to water borne diseases and other environmental hazards have become a source of concern due to poor environmental and waste management initiatives. Tudunwada, Essiet and Muhammad (2007) report that during tanning process, large amount of effluents are discharged into the surrounding soil as well as water sources in Kano. These effluents according to them may contain a variety of chemicals that are used in the tanning process such as sodium sulphate, chromium sulphate, non-ionic wetting agents and may accumulate in the immediate environments of the tannery.

 

Even though Ibrahim, Odoh and Nwadiogbu (2012) state that treatment of all kinds of wastewater prior to discharge into the environment is desirable so as to avoid pollution there seems to be nonchalant attitude from both the government and the populace. Water pollution by effluent has become a question of considerable public and scientific concern in the light of evidence of their toxicity to human health and to biological ecosystems (Katsuro et al in Muhibbu-Din et al, 2011).

 

Coker et al (2001) report that abattoir waste can affect water, land and air qualities if proper practices of management are not followed. Several reports have shown contamination of the soil (Osemwota, 2010; Oyeleke, Duada, Oyewole, Sumayya and Okoliegbe, 2011; Ubwa, Atoo, Offem, Abahand Asemave, 2013) and groundwater (Sangodoyin and Agbawhe, 1992; Adegbola and Adewoye, 2012) of the surrounding environment by abattoir wastes. Even though Osemwota (2010), Rabah, Oyeleke, Manga, Hassan and Ijah (2010), Oyeleke et al (2011) and Ubwa et al (2013) report negative impact of abattoir effluent on soils, Umanu and Owoseni (2013) however report that the addition of abattoir effluent in moderate quantity to diesel oil contaminated soil could enhance the bioremediation of the diesel oil polluted soil.

 

Contamination of river bodies from abattoir wastes could constitute significant environmental and health hazard (World Bank, 1995; Coker et al., 2001; Nafarnda, Yajiand Kubkomawa, 2006; Osibanjo and Adie, 2007). Sangodoyin and Agbawe (1992) identified improper management and supervision of abattoir activities as a major source of risk to public health in southwestern Nigeria. According to FAO (1996), a large variety of slaughter sites exists in developing countries. Slaughter sites vary from simple slaughter slabs to very modern slaughterhouses. Large scale industrial processing units are imported from developed countries, often without rendering or waste treatment facilities. Many slaughterhouses (of various types) are insanitary and pose threats to health, particularly around rapidly expanding population areas. Often old slaughterhouses discharge blood and untreated wastewater. Blood may coagulate in drains where it putrefies, causing bad odour and sanitary and environmental problems. Edible and inedible by-products are frequently wasted during the slaughtering and further processing owing to amongst others:

 

• insufficient skills and discipline in slaughtering;

 

• poor quality of slaughtering equipment in the slaughterhouse, slaughtering on the floor, no slaughter line, lack of adequate maintenance and lack of spare parts;

 

• a non-cost-effective processing of by-products either because of the small quantities involved, the high costs of processing or the low value of the end product;

 

• lack of equipment for the processing of by-products; and

 

• lack of regulations on the discharge of wastes or the inability of the authorities to enforce regulations.

 

Similarly, Adeyemo (2002) mentions that meat processing in developing countries is

 

very unhygienic with slaughtering, dressing and evisceration done on the floor in slaughter halls and slabs. The total amount of waste produced per animal slaughtered is approximately 35% its body weight (World Bank, 1998). In an earlier study, Verheijen, Wiersema, Hulshoff and DE-Wit, (1996) found out that for every 1,000 kg of carcass weight, a slaughtered cow produces 5.5 kg of manure (excluding rumen contents or stockyard manure) and 100 kg of paunch manure (partially digested food). Scahill (2003) gave detailed statistics on both the live and dead weight of a cow in his study. A cow weighing 400 kg would have its carcass weight reduced to about 200 kg after slaughter. Furthermore, it loses about one-third of its fat and bones after passing through the butcher. Hence a 400 kg live weight animal will give about 140 kg of edible meat which represents only 35% of its weight. The remaining 65% are either solid or liquid wastes.

 

Blood, one of the major dissolved pollutants in abattoir wastewater, has the highest COD of any effluent from abattoir operations. If the blood from a single cow carcass is allowed to discharge directly into a sewer line, the effluent load would be equivalent to the total sewage produced by 50 people on average day (Aniebo, Wekhe and Okoli, 2009). Excess nutrients can cause the water body to become choked with organic substances and organisms. When organic matter exceeds the capacity of the micro-organisms in water that break down and recycle the organic matter, it leads to eutrophication and encourages rapid growth or blooms of algae. Equally, improper disposal systems of wastes from slaughterhouses could lead to transmission of pathogens to humans and cause zoonotic disease such as E. coli, bacillosis, salmonellosis,brucellosis and helminthes (Cadmus, Olusaga and Ogundipe, 1999). Improper management of abattoir wastes and subsequent disposal either directly or indirectly into river bodies portends serious environmental and health hazards both to aquatic life and humans (Akan et al., 2010).

 

In developed countries, slaughter houses have fairly efficient waste recovery and management systems (Massé and Masse 2000). They also report that in Quebec and Ontario, hog slaughterhouses generally discharge their wastewater in municipal sewers after some level of primary and or chemical pre-treatment at the plant. In Australia, the report by MLA (1998) showed that waste water from abattoirs receives some form of pre-treatment followed by simple anaerobic and aerobic lagoon treatment even though there is increased pressure from environmental authorities to improve waste water treatment.

In most developing countries abattoir effluent, like other wastes are indiscriminately disposed into streams and rivers without prior treatment and where it is treated, it may not be adequately done. Kosamu et al (2011) found out that effluent from Shire Valley abattoir contributes to the pollution of Mchesa stream in Malawi. In Rwanda, Muhirwa, Nhapi, Wali, Banadda, Kashaigili and Kimwaga (2011) in a similar study report that there is no significant measure or facilities to treat abattoir waste water and the Nyabugogo abattoir discharges untreated effluent into Mpazi River.

 

Koech et al (2012) state that although slaughter-house effluents were treated in Kenya, it did not meet the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) standard for effluent discharge into the environment. This, according to them, leads to cross pollution of the receiving water based on the parameters they investigated. They therefore called for the need to upscale the existing wastewater treatment system and to enforce existing legislations to curb water pollution to safeguard both the environment and human health. Effluent from Tamale abattoir in Ghana was highly polluted and did not meet the set standards for effluent discharge into the environment as shown by Weobong and Adinyira (2011).

 

Abrha (2011) reports that some slaughterhouse industries have started to use lagoons as wastewater treatment in Ethiopia but due to limited holding capacity of the lagoons during high production and wet season, wastewaters are over flown and discharged to nearby rivers and/or land. He further mentioned that there are also slaughterhouses without any wastewater treatment facilities and their effluents are released directly into the rivers. Kera slaughterhouse for instance releases its untreated wastewater directly into Akaki River.

 

Abattoir effluent has been known to pollute surface water, groundwater and soil and several studies have been done on abattoir wastewater treatment using several methods. Such include; Moodie and Greenfield (1978), Ruiz,Veiga De Santiagoand Blfizquez (1997); Masséand Masse (2000); Manjunath, Mehrotra, and Mathur, R.P. (2000); Torkian, Equbali, and Hashemian (2003), Mittal (2006), Al-Mutairi, Hamoda and Al-Ghusain (2007); Asseline, Drogui, Benmoussa, and Blais (2008); Tezcan, Koparaland Bakir (2009); Palatsi, Vinas, Guivemau, Fernanddez, Flotats (2011); Bazrafshan, Mostafapour, Farzadkia, Ownaghand Mahvi (2012); Kundu, Debsarkar and Mukherjee (2013); Sunder and Satyanarayan (2013) and Irshad (2013).

 

Abattoirs are important in Nigeria and they play a major role in domestic meat supply as well as provide employment opportunities to many members of communities where they are located (Makwe and Chup, 2013). An important environmental impact of the animal processing industry results from the discharge of wastewater (FAO, 1996). Abrha (2011) states that despite its importance, abattoir operations consume large amount of water resource for washing of carcasses after hide removal from cattle, goats and sheep; carcass washing after evisceration (remove the guts from); equipment and facilities washing; cooling of mechanical equipment. These activities generate large amount of wastewater along with other by-products including blood, inedible internal organs and intestines, bone, urine and faeces, soft tissue removed during trimming and cutting, soil from hides and hooves, solubilized fat and cleaning compounds. Meat processing industries (abattoirs) are generally less developed in developing countries unlike advanced countries where waste generation, analysis and treatment are considered before constructing the abattoir (Chukwu, 2008). As a result, abattoir wastewater discharge into surface water bodies has become a common practice in Nigeria. Moreover, slaughterhouse activities have direct and indirect impacts on the built up environment and health of people especially residents in slaughterhouse vicinity. It also has a negative impact on air and water qualities especially where special or effective waste disposal system is not practiced (Bello and Oyedemi, 2009).

 

Generally, abattoir based pollutants include animal blood, paunch manure and animal faeces, animal horns and bones, decomposing manure pile, fat, grease, hair, feathers, flesh, grit and undigested feed, and process water which are characterized with high organic levels (Coker et al., 2001; Nafarnda et al., 2006; Ezeoha and Ugwuishiwu, 2011). These pollute surface and underground water, abattoir environment and contaminate consumables (Ezeoha and Ugwuishiwu, 2011). Several reports have indicated that abattoirs in Nigeria lack adequate treatment facilities and they dispose their effluent directly into streams and rivers without prior treatment (Adelegan, 2002). Chukwu (2008) states that there are no waste treatment plants for abattoirs in Nigeria. More so, legislation for the protection of water sources is inadequate and there is no clearly established or coordinated policy framework to tackle water pollution and greenhouse gas emission. Similarly, Nwanta, Onunkwo, Ezenduka, Phil-Eze and Egege (2008) found out that the slaughtering and processing facilities in the abattoirs in Nigeria is inadequate as there are no sewage or waste disposal system, adequate clean water supplies and refrigeration. Different researches such as Chukwu (2008), Raheem and Morenikeji (2008), Akan, Abdulrahman and Yusuf (2010) and Iwara, Njar, Deekor and Ita (2012) in Minna, Ibadan, Maiduguri and Cross-River state respectively also confirmed that there are no facilities for abattoir effluent treatment in those areas as they are channeled into streams and rivers.

Adelegan (2003) had earlier mentioned that many slaughterhouses dispose their waste directly into streams or rivers in Nigeria and use water from the same source to wash the slaughtered meat and several studies which have been carried out on the effect of abattoir effluent show contamination of the rivers and streams. For example, Akan et al (2010) assesses the physical and chemical parameters in abattoir waste water sample in Maiduguri. They found that the abattoir waste water contained high levels of pollutant and the levels of DO, BOD, COD, TDS, and TSS were higher than WHO permissible limit. All abattoirs visited in the cause of their study revealed that they use nearby streams and ponds as means of discharging waste slurry thereby giving rise to offensive odour, contribute to the organic and nutrients loads of the streams leading to eutrophication. The result also showed high microbial load in the abattoir waste water which calls for the need to treat the waste water before discharging into the environment.

 

Minna abattoir lowered the quality of receiving stream and contains several pollutants which are above the allowable limits (Chukwu, Mustapha and AbdualGafar 2008). Most of the parameters examined by Saidu and Musa (2012) were above the recommended values by the WHO. In Maiduguri, the situation is still the same as waste water from the abattoir located in Kashua Shanu flows directly into River Ngada without treatments (Akan et al, 2010). Rabah et al (2010) report that some wastewater from Sokoto abattoir is channeled into river Rima through the drainages. Most of the liquid wastes generated from Karu abattoir in Abuja are disposed directly into the nearby Tauga Stream without any form of treatment; a situation which may likely pose a threat to the quality of water within the stream, especially for downstream users (Makwe, 2013).

 

Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Salmonella, Escherichia Coli Norcadia species and an unconfirmed bacillus species were the pathogenic species of bacteria species identified in abattoir wastewater in South-Western Nigeria. Many of the pathogens of slaughtered animals have the potential for surviving in the environment and thus affecting animal and human health (Coker et al, 2001). Omole and Longe (2008) report that blood wash and the process water from the abattoir close to River Illo in Otta are channeled directly into the River. Alamuyo stream in Ibadan is also a recipient of untreated abattoir effluent. The abattoir has an open slaughtering slab where cows, rams, goats and pigs are slaughtered. The result of their study showed that the effluent have negative impact on the physicochemical parameters of the stream (Raheem and Morenikeji, 2008). Adeoye, Dauda, Musa, Adebayo and Sadeeq (2012) report a similar case on Oluka stream which receives untreated abattoir effluent from Moniya abattoir also in Ibadan. Neboh, Ilusanya, Ezekoye and Orji (2013) examined the impact of Ijebu-Igbo abattoir on the ecology of the receiving soil and river. They found out that the high microbial load in the abattoir wastes had a negative effect in the microbial population in the soil and the river.

 

Atuanya, Nwogu and Akpor (2012) studied effluent qualities of government and private abattoirs and their effects on Ikpoba River in Edo state. The result showed significant variations in the bacteriological and physico-chemical qualities of downstream river water. Emeka, Braide and Chindah (2009) investigated the environmental and health impacts of abattoir wastes on Woji creek and environs. The result also showed that the effluents impacted negatively on the water. Effect of Adiabo abattoir on the water quality status of Calabar River was studied by Iwara et al (2012). Even though the result revealed that the water quality status of Calabar River is not adversely impaired with the discharge of abattoir wastes, they suggested the use of retention ponds to sustain the ecological status of the river. The study by Obi and Ibe (2011) showed that Woji River is highly impacted by abattoir effluent ranging from high bacteria load to high biochemical oxygen demand which reduces the amount of oxygen in the environment due to high demand of oxygen for breakdown of the organic compounds. Zabbey and Etela (2011) examined the impact of abattoir waste on Woji Creek, Port Harcourt and the physicochemical parameters indicated high organic enrichment, chiefly due to inputs of bloody effluent.

Enugu, like most urban centres of the developing world is experiencing rapid and uncontrolled population growth, inadequate amenities and poor sanitation (Hardog and Satterhwaite in Chima et al 2009). More so, Ezemonye (2009) states that rapid urbanization, industrialization and urban development with their attendant environmental problems have continued in Enugu and have created stress on water availability and quality. The study on the effects of urban wastes on the quality of Asata stream in Enugu showed that the physicochemical parameters analyzed were generally within safe limits in comparison with WHO (1984) criteria for river water while bacteriological quality was above permissible limits at all the sampling stations (Chima et al 2009). Ezenwaji and Orji (2008) mention that the natural water channels in Enugu urban serve as receptacles for the discharge of waste effluents by residents and even government establishments.

The choice of Asata stream is because it flows through many residential areas of the city and therefore is easily accessible to a good number of the population. Some researchers have carried out studies on the quality of Asata stream. These include Chima et al (2009), Ezemonye (2009), Ezenwaji and Orji (2010), Chukwu (2010), Chime, Okorie, Ekanem and Kagbu (2011) and Ubani, Mba and Ozougwu (2014). Chima et al (2009) studied the effects of urban wastes on the quality of Asata stream. Their interest therefore was on the contribution of urban wastes generally (including abattoir effluent) to the quality of Asata stream. Ezemonye (2009) however worked on the quality of surface and groundwater in Enugu Urban and determined the Water Quality Index and the prevalent water related diseases in the area. On the other hand, Ezenwaji and Orji (2010) looked at the effect of urban watershed on the level of microbiological contaminants entering Asata stream. Their major focus therefore was on the microbiological parameters after which they used Multiple Linear Regression to find out the relationship between the river water quality and the microbiological parameters analyzed. Chukwu (2010) examined the impact of Enugu urban environment on the water quality of streams in the Nyaba catchment system. The generated variables were subjected to PCA to find out the strongest factors that affect water quality of streams in Nyaba basin. Chime et al (2011) assessed the surface waters in Enugu urban for fecal coliform bacteria for four years. For the analyses, they used plate count method and the data generated were subjected to statistical tests involving Normality, Homogeneity of variance, Correlation and Tolerance limit. Also, they used time series to investigate the influence of seasons and pollution trend. Ubani et al (2014) assess the pollution levels of rivers in Enugu urban. The analysed fifteen parameters were compared with the NAFDAC acceptable standard.

 

Summarily, Chima et al (2009), Ezemonye (2009), Chukwu (2010) and Ubani et al (2014) all assessed the physical, chemical and microbiological parameters of Asata stream, Ezenwaji and Orji (2010) focused only on the microbiological parameters while Chime et al (2011) singled out fecal coliform. In all, none of them investigated separately the contribution of effluent from abattoir to the quality of the Asata and Owo streams. This therefore justifies the reason for the present study.

 

1.6      Theoretical Framework

 

Theories help reduce complexity and give us lenses to focus inquiry and understanding, directing the observer about what to see, how to categorize, and how to relate rather than approaching problems in an ad-hoc manner (Heikkila, deLeon, Stretesky, Weible, Madden, Gallaher, Huss, Fidelman and Carter, 2012). Different theories of the same phenomenon may focus on distinct elements of that phenomenon. Knowing multiple theories helps in clarifying the differences in assumptions of any particular lens, asking different questions of the same event or process, providing a fuller picture through multiple comparisons, descriptions, and explanations, clarifying boundaries of any particular description and explanation and mitigating threats of “theory tenacity” and “theory confirmation” (Loehle, 1987).

1.6.1    Miasmic Theory of Disease

 

There was much debate in the middle of the nineteenth century about the origin of diseases. Although many British physicians thought that smallpox, measles, and syphilis were contagious, opinions were more divided on cholera, typhus and typhoid which were the most feared epidemic diseases. Three main theories emerged during this time to explain infectious diseases in general and cholera in specific. They were the Miasma Theory, The Blood Generation Theory and The Germ Theory. The most widely accepted notion of infection among these was the Miasma Theory. It held that under certain circumstances, air became charged with an epidemic influence which in turn became malignant when combined with the emissions of organic decomposition from the earth. The resulting gases or miasms produced diseases. Supporters of the miasma theory felt that cholera was one such condition caused by noxious odors of decayed matter. The miasmatic position was that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infection was not passed between individuals but would affect individuals within the locale that gave rise to such vapors. It was identifiable by its foul smell. The miasma theory was consistent with the observations that disease was associated with poor sanitation (and hence foul odour) and that sanitary improvements reduced disease. It held that diseases were spread through the stench of decay (Kokayeff, 2012).

 

1.6.2    The Environmental Theory by Florence Nightingale (1820–1910)

 

Florence Nightingale is considered the founder of educated and scientific nursing, the first nursing theorist. One of her theories was the Environmental Theory, which incorporated the restoration of the usual health status of the nurse’s clients into the delivery of health care and it is still practiced today. She stated in her nursing notes that nursing “is an act of utilizing the environment of the patient to assist him in his recovery” (Nightingale 1860/1969), that it involves the nurse’s initiative to configure environmental settings appropriate for the gradual restoration of the patient’s health, and that external factors associated with the patient’s surroundings affect life or biologic and physiologic processes, and his development. The physical environment is stressed by Nightingale in her writing. Nightingale’s writings reflect a community health model in which all that surrounds human beings is considered in relation to their state of health. Nightingale’s notion of the environment is that of the physical one. She believed that a healthy environment is essential for healing and everything that surrounds the patient has a relation in their state of health. Her focus is on the ventilation, warmth, noise, light and cleanliness and an imbalance in one of this could result to stress to the patient.

 

She identified five (5) environmental factors: fresh air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness or sanitation and light or direct sunlight.

 

1. Pure fresh air – to keep the air he breathes as pure as the external air without chilling

 

2. Pure water – well water of a very impure kind is used for domestic purposes. And when epidemic disease shows itself, persons using such water are almost sure to suffer.

 

3. Effective drainage – all the while the sewer maybe nothing but a laboratory from which epidemic disease and ill health is being installed into the house.

 

4. Cleanliness – She assumes that dirty environment was the source of infection and rejected the Germ Theory. Her nursing interventions focus on proper handling and disposal of bodily secretions and sewage, frequent bathing for patients and nurses, clean clothing and hand washing. The greater part of nursing consists in preserving cleanliness.

 

5. Light (especially direct sunlight) – the usefulness of light in treating disease is very

 

Any deficiency in one or more of these factors could lead to impaired functioning of life processes or diminished health status. The factors posed great significance during Nightingale’s time when health institutions had poor sanitation, and health workers had little education and training and were frequently incompetent and unreliable in attending to the needs of the patients. Also emphasized in her environmental theory is the provision of a quiet or noise-free and warm environment, attending to patient’s dietary needs by assessment, documentation of time of food intake, and evaluating its effects on the patient. The Environmental Theory of Nursing is a patient-care theory. It focuses in the alteration of the patient’s environment in order to affect change in his or her health. Caring for the patient is of more importance rather than the nursing process, the relationship between patient and nurse, or the individual nurse. In this way, the model must be adapted to fit the needs of individual patients. The environmental factors affect different patients unique to their situations and illnesses, and the nurse must address these factors on a case-by-case basis in order to make sure the factors are altered in a way that best cares for an individual patient and his or her needs (Wayne, 2014). Critiques of the Nightingale’s environment theory pointed her inability to recognize a unified body of nursing knowledge that is testable, but was only relying on personal observation and experience. She rejected the germ theory and the following are her theoretical assertions.

 

• Prevention of interruption is very vital in the reparative process of the patient. Her focus is on nursing education that required even more training.

 

• Nursing Practice is the application of common sense, observation, perseverance and ingenuity.

 

• If the person wants to recuperate, he needs to cooperate with the nurse.

 

• Disease came from the organic materials from the patient and environment not on the germ theory. She totally disagreed and rejected the germ theory.

 

• Sanitation means the manipulation of the environment to prevent diseases.

 

• Nursing is the commitment to the nursing works.

 

She gives a little focus on the interpersonal relationship and nurse caring behaviour. She believed that the nurse should be moral agents. “Think and act like a nurse.” Professional relationships, principles of confidentiality and care for the poor to improve health and social condition were the focus of her nursing care. Nightingale’s theory was shown to be applicable during the Crimean war when she, along with other nurses she had trained, took care of injured soldiers by attending to their immediate needs, when communicable diseases and rapid spread of infections were rampant in this early period in the development of disease-capable medicines. The practice of environment configuration according to patient’s health or disease condition is still applied today (Wikipedia, 2015).

 

1.6.3    The Germ Theory of Disease

 

The germ theory of disease states that some diseases are caused by microorganisms. These small organisms, too small to see without magnification, invade humans, animals, and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause a disease. “Germ” may refer to not just a bacterium, but also a protist, fungus, virus, prion or viroid. Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens, and the diseases they cause are called infectious diseases. Even when a pathogen is the principal cause of a disease, environmental and hereditary factors often influence the severity of the disease, and whether a particular host individual becomes infected when exposed to the pathogen (Wikipedia, 2015). The Germ theory states that specific microscopic organisms are the cause of specific diseases. Germ theory encouraged the reduction of diseases to simple interactions between microorganism and host, without the need for the elaborate attention to environmental influences, diet, climate, ventilation and, so on that were essential to earlier understandings of health and disease. Because of this, some important proponents of hygiene and sanitation, including Florence Nightingale, did not necessarily believe that acceptance of the germ theory would be associated with improvements in public health (http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/contagion/germtheory.html).

 

The Germ Theory of Disease Causation and Environmental Theory by Florence Nightingale are somewhat interconnected. These theories however guided this work to bring out the relationship between the provision of clean water, which can be regarded here as pollution-free stream water (as a product of the physical environment advocated by Florence Nightingale) and elimination of microorganisms that cause disease known as pathogens (as advocated by Germ theory of disease causation). This shows the direct relationship between the provision of portable water and good health (of man and the environment).

 

1.7   Research   Methodology

 

1.7.1 Research Design

 

This study is aimed at ascertaining the pollution level of Asata and Owo streams due to abattoir effluent discharge. Water samples were collected from strategic points along the two streams to give useful information on the contribution of untreated abattoir effluent to the pollution of the two streams. The results supplied by the lab technicians were properly analysed using percentages, standard deviation, mean and student’s t-test. Percentage, as one of the analytical tools was used to find the amount of change contributed by the effluent while t-test was used to find significant difference between the upstream and downstream sections of the abattoirs and that of the two seasons. Two sets of questionnaire were used for this study to obtain information on the uses (supplied by the people who make use of the stream water downstream) of the two streams and the prevalent water related diseases suffered in the study area (supplied by medical personnel). This work totally relied on laboratory analysis, questionnaire, interview and physical observation.

 

1.7.2 Field Observation

 

Field observation was adopted throughout the period of this study but more importantly at the initial stage of the research. The choice of the two streams was made during the reconnaissance survey as the inhabitants of the study area make use of the stream water while abattoir activities are going on at the upstream. This could be harmful to their health. There was also interaction and interview with the inhabitants of the study area who utilize the stream water. Possible sampling points were marked during this period of field observation.

1.7.3 Sample Points Selection

 

Six points were selected for sampling. This was done in order to cover a reasonable length of the two streams but more importantly to highlight the contribution of untreated abattoir effluent to the pollution load of Asata and Owo streams. The upstream of the two streams were selected to serve as control, referred to in this work as UA and UB for Asata and Owo respectively, discharge points of the two abattoirs were referred to as DPA and DPB while we have two more points to represent the downstream section, that is, downstream 1 (a point after Owo stream joined Asata stream) and downstream 2 (before Asata joined Ekulu) (Figs. 3a and 3b).

 

Table 1: Sampled Points Location and Coordinates

 

S/N	NAME OF LOCATION	CODE	GPS COORDINATES
			NORTHING	EASTING
1	Asata Upstream (few metres after Aria stream	UA	06°27’18.96″	7°30’43.98″
	joined Asata)
2	Owo Upstream	UB	06°26’69.98″	007°32’34.7″
3	Abattoir ‘A’ Discharge Point	DPA	06°27’15.90″	007°32’30.6″
4	Abattoir ‘B’ Discharge Point	DPB	06°27’08.02″	007°32’34.7″
5	Downstream 1 (about 567m after Owo joined	D1	06°27’05.08″	007°33’27.1″
	Asata)
6	Downstream 2 (about 115m before Asata joined	D2	06°26’34.7″	007°37’10.4″
	Ekulu)

 

Source:

 

 

 

Fig. 3a: Asata and Owo streams showing the sampled points.

 

Fig. 3b: (Zoomed): Asata and Owo streams showing the two abattoirs.

 

Sources: Fieldwork 2013-2015; GIS Unit, Department of Geography, University of Nigeria Nsukka

 

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1.7.4    Sample Points Description

 

Asata Upstream (UA)

 

This is our control for Asata stream. It is located approximately on latitudes 06°27’18.96″N and longitude 7°30’43.98″E. It is about 4.04km before the discharge point of Abattoir ‘A’. Around this area are schools and hotels. Water abstraction for use at this point is not common. The only observed use of the stream water at this point was a horticulturist for the flowers.

 

Owo Upstream (UB)

 

This is our control for Owo stream located approximately on latitudes 06°26’69.98″N longitude 007°32’34.7″E. It is about 0.52km from Abattoir ‘B’ discharge point. Two block industries and a car wash are located close to this point where they utilize the stream water.

 

Abattoir ‘A’ Discharge Point (DPA)

 

This is Abattoir ‘A’ point of discharge where untreated abattoir effluent is emptied into Asata stream. It is located on latitudes 06°27’15.90″N longitude 007°32’30.6″E. Around this point, the inhabitants of the New Artisan market use the stream water for several purposes except drinking.

 

Abattoir ‘B’ Discharge Point (DPB)

 

This represents the point of discharge for abattoir ‘B’ which empties its raw effluent into Owo stream. It is located on latitudes 06°27’08.02″N and longitude 007°32’34.7″E. The inhabitants of the New Artisan market also make use of the stream water here.

 

Downstream 1 (D1)

 

This point is located on latitudes 06°27’05.08″N and longitude 007°33’27.1″E. It is about 0.54km after Owo joined Asata. Since Owo is a tributary to Asata, few meters was allowed for turbulence to settle for proper mixing of the two streams. Here, the inhabitants of Nkpologwu community make extensive use of the stream water. They use the stream water for various domestic uses except for drinking.

 

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Downstream 2 (D2)

 

Downstream 2 is our last sampled point located approximately at latitudes 06°26’34.7″N and longitudes 007°37’10.4″E. It is about 4.48km from downstream 1 and about 0.10km before Asata joined Ekulu River. This is a growing industrial area as new industries were observed to be under construction. Some are already at their completion stage.

1.7.5 Water Sample Collection

 

All bottles were washed with distilled water prior to usage. At each sampling location, water sample were collected in a plastic container of one litre. Before taking the water sample, the bottles were rinsed three times with the sample water at the point of collection to prevent any likely contamination from the containers used for the samples. Two different bottles were used to collect two water samples from each location. One of the bottles was used for physico-chemical analysis while the other was for microbiological analysis. All samples were labeled with the following information; (i) sample location (ii) date of collection (iii) time of collection and (iv) analysis required. The water sampling was done in both rainy (July) and dry (January) seasons of 2015. This double sampling is to reflect seasonal changes in water quality. Water samples were collected at 10am in all the points at 5cm depth and 0.5m distance from the shore. The reason for the distance is to get to where the stream water maintains a constant flow.

 

1.7.6 Abattoir Wastewater Sample Collection

 

Wastewater from the two abattoirs was collected in one litre plastic containers before it was discharged into the streams. This was done in the morning (7:20am) during the period of slaughtering and washing. The same process of washing the containers that was used for water sample collection was applied. Sample collection for abattoir wastewater was done once since its (wastewater) composition is not affected by season.

 

1.7.7 In-Situ Analysis of Water and Wastewater Samples

 

The temperature of the water and waste water samples were taken in-situ using a mercury thermometer. The thermometer was immersed into the streams and waste water (for two minutes) till the reading stabilized and the reading taken. This is expressed in °C.

 

1.7.8 Sample Preservation

 

The collected water and wastewater samples were preserved in a cooler with blocks of ice and transported to the Laboratory of Enugu State Water Corporation, Enugu (Dry Season) and National Centre for Energy Research and Development, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (Rainy Season) for analysis. The reason for the change in Laboratory during the rainy season was as a result of huge difference in price.

 

1.7.9   Choice of Water Quality Parameters

 

The choice of these water quality parameters (Table 2) was guided by their relative importance in abattoir effluent composition. They are;

 

Temperature

 

Temperature greatly influences biological activity and growth. It governs the kinds of organisms that can live in streams, rivers and lakes. Fish, insects, zooplankton, phytoplankton, and other aquatic species all have a preferred temperature range. As temperatures get too far above or below this preferred range, the number of individuals of the species decreases until finally there are none. Temperature is also important because of its influence on water chemistry. Warm water holds less dissolved oxygen than cool water, and may not contain enough dissolved oxygen for the survival of different species of aquatic life (USGS, 2014).

 

Turbidity

 

High concentrations of particulate matter affect light penetration and productivity, recreational values, and habitat quality (USEPA, 2015). Suspended materials can clog fish gills, reducing resistance to disease in fish, lowering growth rates and affecting egg and larval development (SPDC, 2004). Particles also provide attachment places for other pollutants, notably metals and bacteria. For this reason, turbidity readings can be used as an indicator of potential pollution in a water body. Turbidity can provide food and shelter for pathogens. If not removed, turbidity can promote regrowth of pathogens in the distribution system, leading to waterborne disease outbreaks. Although turbidity is not a direct indicator of health risk, numerous studies show a strong relationship between removal of turbidity and removal of protozoa. The particles of turbidity provide food and shelter for microbes by reducing their exposure to attack by disinfectants. Microbial attachment to particulate material has been considered to aid in microbe survival (USEPA, 2015). Higher turbidity increases water temperatures because suspended particles absorb more heat. This in turn reduces the concentration of DO because warm water reduces photosynthesis and the production of DO (SPDC, 2004). Turbid water may not be suitable for use in industrial processes as the abundance of suspended solids may clog or scour pipes and machinery. The organic constituents of turbid waters may habour high concentrations of bacteria, viruses and protozoans. If turbidity is largely due to organic particles, dissolved oxygen depletion may occur. The excess nutrients available will encourage microbial breakdown, a process that requires dissolved oxygen (Osmond et al 1995).

 

Electrical Conductivity

 

Conductivity is a measure of the ability to conduct an electric current and is the opposite (or reciprocal) of resistance. The higher the concentration of ions in water, the more current the water can conduct. Conductivity is sensitive, then, to the amount of dissolved solids particularly mineral salts in the water, and also depends on the amount of electrical charge on each ion, ion mobility and temperature. Field measurements of conductivity can be used to delineate a pollution zone, such as the extent of influence of an effluent discharge or run-off waters (RAMP, 2015).

pH

 

pH affects many chemical and biological processes in the water. Different organisms flourish within different ranges of pH. Most aquatic animals prefer a range of 5.5 to 8.5 but can tolerate a wide range of pH values. However, where the pH is below 5.5 and above 8.5, the diversity in the water body may be reduced because of stresses on the physiological systems of most organisms and its effect on reproduction. Low pH can also allow toxic elements and compounds to become mobile and ‘available’ for uptake by aquatic plants and animals. This can produce conditions that toxic to aquatic life, particularly to sensitive species. Changes in acidity can be caused by atmospheric deposition (acid rain) and certain wastewater discharges (SPDC, 2004). It is an important indicator of water that is changing chemically since pH can be affected by chemicals in the water. The pH of water determines the solubility (amount that can be dissolved in the water) and biological availability (amount that can be utilized by aquatic life) of chemical constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) and heavy metals (lead, copper, cadmium, etc.). For example, in addition to affecting how much and what form of phosphorus is most abundant in the water, pH also determines whether aquatic life can use it. In the case of heavy metals, the degree to which they are soluble determines their toxicity. Metals tend to be more toxic at lower pH because they are more soluble. Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of water. High pH causes a bitter taste, water pipes and water-using appliances become encrusted with deposits, and it depresses the effectiveness of the disinfection of chlorine, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine when pH is high. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances. Pollution can change water’s pH, which in turn can harm animals and plants living in the water (USGS, 2015). Since most aquatic animals prefer a range of 5.5 to 8.5 according to (SPDC, 2004).

 

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

 

High levels of total dissolved solids and conductivity render water less suitable for drinking and irrigation (RAMP, 2015). Total dissolved solids (TDS) content in water is a measure for salinity. A large number of salts are found dissolved in natural waters, the common ones are carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, phosphates and nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron and manganese etc. A high content of dissolved solid elements affects the density of water, influences osmoregulation of freshwater in organisms, reduces solubility of gases (like oxygen) and utility of water for drinking, irrigational, and industrial purposes (Lokhande, Singare and Pimple, 2011).

 

Sulphate

 

High concentrations of sulphate in the water we drink can have a laxative effect when combined with calcium and magnesium, the two most common constituents of hardness. Bacteria, which attack and reduce sulphates, form hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S). The maximum level of sulphate suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) in the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, set up in Geneva, 1993, is 500 mg/l. Sulphate level in abattoir effluent was quite low. People not used to drinking water with high levels of sulphate can experience dehydration and diarrhoea. Kids are often more sensitive to sulphate than adults. As a safety measure, water with a sulphate level exceeding 400 mg/l should not be used in the preparation of baby food. Older children and adults become used to high sulphate levels after a few days. In young animals, high levels may cause severe, chronic diarrhea and in some cases, death. Sulphate gives a bitter or medicinal taste to water if it exceeds a concentration of 250 mg/l. High sulphate levels may also be corrosive for plumbing, particularly copper piping.

 

Phosphate

 

The addition of large quantities of phosphates to waterways accelerates algae and plant growth in natural waters; enhancing eutrophication and depleting the water body of oxygen. This can lead to fish kills and the degradation of habitat with loss of species. Large mats of algae can form and in severe cases can completely cover small lakes. As a result, water can become putrid from decaying organic matter. When the concentration of phosphates rises above 100 mg/liter the coagulation processes in drinking water treatment plants may be adversely affected. Manmade sources of phosphate include human sewage, agricultural run-off from crops, sewage from animal feedlots, pulp and paper industry, vegetable and fruit processing, chemical and fertilizer manufacturing and detergents (Pederson, 1997).

 

Nitrate

 

Nitrates are not generally considered toxic, but at high concentrations the body may convert nitrate to nitrite. Nitrites are toxic salts that disrupt blood oxygen transport by disrupting haemoglobin to methemoglobin conversion. This causes nausea and stomach aches for adults. For young infants it may be extremely risky, because it rapidly causes blood oxygen deprivation (EPA standards).

 

Iron

 

Iron is the fourth most abundant element, by weight, in the earth’s crust. Natural waters contain variable amounts of iron despite its universal distribution and abundance. Iron is a trace element required by both plants and animals. It is a vital oxygen transport mechanism in the blood of all vertebrate and some invertebrate animals. Iron in domestic water supply systems stains laundry and porcelain. It appears to be more of a nuisance than a potential health hazard Oram (2014).

 

Sodium

 

Sodium is the sixth most abundant element on Earth and is widely distributed in soils, plants, water, and foods. Most of the world has significant deposits of sodium-containing minerals. Sodium ion is ubiquitous in water because of the high solubility of many sodium salts. There are a number of anthropogenic sources of sodium that can contribute significant quantities of sodium to surface water, including road salt, water treatment chemicals, domestic water softeners and sewage effluents. In general, sodium salts are not acutely toxic because of the efficiency with which mature kidneys excrete sodium. However, acute toxicity and death have been reported in cases of very high sodium intake (USEPA, 2003).

 

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

 

The greater the BOD the higher the degree of pollution. When the organic loading of the aquatic environment becomes abnormally high, the BOD far exceeds the available oxygen. BOD is used as a measure of the quantity of oxygen required for oxidation of biodegradable organic matter present in a water sample by aerobic and anaerobic biochemical action (Ezekiel, Hart and Abowei, 2011). BOD content is an indicator of good quality water, while a high BOD indicates polluted water. BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in rivers and streams. The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the stream. This means less oxygen is available to higher forms of aquatic life. Thus, the consequences of high BOD leads to aquatic organisms becoming stressed, suffocating and dying (Lokhande et al, 2011).

 

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

 

The dissolved oxygen content of a waterway is often the single most important feature which influences fish and other aquatic biota life (Gregory, Alam, Rahman, Jabbar and Uddins, 2011). DO affect the growth, survival, distribution, behaviour and physiology of shrimps and other aquatic organisms (Solis, 1988). It is required for respiration and release of energy from food (Lagler, Bardach, Miller and Passion, 1981). Adeniji (1986) mentioned that the presence of DO in good quantity in water will improve the water quality by rendering poisonous gases like hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and others into their nonpoisonous forms. Novotny (2003) states that it is not safe for any water DO to be lower than 4mg/l in order for the animals to survive. Fish kills occur when they are exposed for a few hours to less than 3mg/l DO. It therefore will be very difficult for an aquatic animal to survive in this water due to level of concentration.

 

Escherichia Coli (E.coli)

 

1. coli are gram-negative bacteria and are a type of fecal coliform bacteria commonly found in the intestines of animals and humans. The presence of E. coli in water is a strong indication of recent sewage or animal waste contamination. Human and animal sources of fecal

 

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pollution represent a serious health risks because of the high likelihood of the existence of pathogens also in the fecal waste. E. coli is commonly used to indicate that fecal contamination is present in water. Although not all E. coli bacteria are typically pathogenic, E. coli concentrations are the best predictor of swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness (diarrhoea). In addition to gastrointestinal illness, illnesses such as eye infections, skin irritations, ear, nose, throat infections, and respiratory illness are also common in people who have come into contact with water contaminated with faeces (Rock and Rivera, 2014).

 

Total Coliform

 

NSDWQ (2006) reports that the health effects of presence of total coliform bacteria in water include urinary track infections, bacteraemia, meningitis, diarrhoea (one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality among children), acute renal failure and hemolytic anemia. All the sampled points have total coliform concentration at safe level in rainy season except the two discharge points. In dry season, Asata upstream, the two discharge points and downstream1 have total coliform level to be unsafe for human consumption.

 

Table 2: Selected Water Quality Parameters and their Standard Limits

Parameters	WHO (Drinking Water)	FMENV (Effluent
		Discharge)
Temperature(°C)	25	40
Turbidity (NTU)	5.0	–
Electrical Conductivity (µS/cm)	400	4000
pH	6.5-8.5	6-9
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l)	500	2000
Total Suspended Solids (mg/l)	20	–
Chloride (mg/l)	–	600
Sulphate(mg/l)	250	500
Phosphate (mg/l)	0.3	5
Nitrate (mg/l)	10	20
Iron (mg/l)	0.3	20
Sodium (mg/l)	–	–
Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/l)	10	50
Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l)	10-20	–
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l)	6.5	–
Escherichia coli (cfu/100ml)	0	–
Total Coliform (cfu/100ml)	10	–

 

NTU: Nephelometric Turbidity Units

µS/cm: micro-Siemens per centimeter

 

mg/l: milligram per litre

cfu: Colony forming unit per 100 millilitres

– Not Available

Sources: WHO (2011) & FMENV (1991)

 

1.7.10    Laboratory Analysis of Water and Wastewater Samples

 

The physico-chemical and microbiological analysis of the various water and wastewater quality parameters were conducted using standard analytical method and the results were compared with WHO, 2011 (for stream water) and FEMENV, 1991 (for wastewater) standards. This is because Nigeria is guided in their environmental policy by the recommendations of the WHO and FAO (McDonald and Kay, 1988). For reasons of assurance of results, the analysis was done by the lab technicians. Below is the procedure as supplied;

Physico-chemical Analysis

 

Determination of Turbidity

 

Materials: Turbidiometer, covets, deionised water.

 

Procedure: The turbidiometer was switched on and one of the covets was filled to the mark with deionized water (turbidity free water) which was used to standardize the meter. The covet containing deionized water was then replaced with the one containing raw water samples. Each was allowed to stabilize and its reading was recorded.

 

Determination of Electrical Conductivity (E.C)

 

Materials: WTW Conductivity Meter, Model LF. 90,0.01MKCl solution.

 

Procedure: The conductivity meter was standardized with 0.01M KCl solution. The electrode was rinsed with deionized water, wiped and dipped into the water sample and left for some time for the reading to stabilize. The reading displayed on the screen was then recorded in micro Siemens per centimeter (uS/cm).

 

Determination of pH

 

The term pH is used to measure the amount of hydrogen ion concentration (H⁺) of a solution.

 

It is therefore described as a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the solution.

 

Materials: Jenway pH meter, model 3510

 

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Procedure: The pH meter was standardized with pH 4, 7 and 10 buffer solutions. It was then washed with distilled water, wiped and immersed in the sample and retained for a short while until the reading stabilized. The reading was then recorded from the display.

 

Determination of Total Dissolved Solids (T.D.S)

 

Materials: Beaker, water bath, desiccator, weighing balance

 

Procedure: 100ml of filtered water sample was pipetted in a weighed beaker. It was heated gently on a water bath to dryness. It was cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The processes of heating, cooling and weighing were repeated until a constant weight was obtained.

T.D.S. (ppm) =	Wt.of dry filterate	x	1,000,000		………………………….. (1)
	Volume of sample		1

 

Determination of Chloride

 

Materials: 0.1N Sodium Carbonate, 10% Potassium Chromate, 0.01M Silver Nitrate

 

Procedure: This was done by Mohr’s Argentometric method using silver nitrate. The pH of the water sample was first adjusted to 8 using sodium carbonate. Then, 25ml of that sample was pipetted into conical flask. 2 drops of potassium chromate was added as indicator. The sample was titrated using standard silver nitrate. The colour change was from yellow to pale pink.

 

Calculation

 

Chloride (mg/l) = ^TxMMxMx1000    …………………………………….…………….. (2)

V

 

 

Determination of Sulphate

 

Materials: Saturated Barium Chloride solution, 0.01M EDTA, 2M HCl, filter paper. Procedure: 100ml of water whose sulphate content was to be determined had the pH adjusted to 1 with 10ml of 2M HCl. It was heated to near boiling point. 15ml of hot boiling barium chloride (saturated) was added while stirring. It was heated on a water bath for one hour to coagulate the precipitate of barium sulphate. Two drops of BaCl2 was added to test for complete

 

45

 

 

precipitation. The solution was filtered through a filter paper. The filter paper was transferred back into a beaker and carefully washed with 25ml of 0.01M EDTA until all precipitates were completely dissolved aided by the addition of 10ml of concentrated ammonia and heated to dissolution, leaving excess EDTA. The excess EDTA was titrated with standard MgCl2 using Eriochrome Black -T indicator. Colour changed from blue to pink. The volume of MgCl2 which was needed to reach the end point was used to calculate the volume of EDTA which reacted with BaSO4.

 

Calculation

 

Sulphate (mg/l) = (V0-V1) x M x MM (SO4^2-)………………………………..…. (3)

 

Where;

 

V0 = Volume of std EDTA added to dissolve the ppt

 

V1 = Volume of MgCl2 required to titrate the excess EDTA

 

M = Molarity of EDTA

 

MM = Molar Mass of S04^2-

 

Determination of Phosphate

 

Materials: Spectrophotometer, lab glassware, hot plate and Nessler’s tube.

 

Procedure: 50ml of the filtered sample, 4ml of ammonium molybdate reagent and about 4-5 drops of stannous chloride reagent was added to the sample. After about 10 min, the colour developed was measured photometrically at 690nm and calibration curve was prepared. A reagent blank is always run with same treatment with distilled water as sample. The value of phosphate was obtained by comparing absorbance of sample with the standard curve and expressed as mg/l.

 

Calculation:
Phosphate (as mg/l) =	Absorbance of sample X Conc. of Std X 1000  ……………. (4)
	Absorbance of Std. X Sample taken

 

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Determination of Nitrate (Phenoldisulphonic Acid Method)

 

Materials: Nessleriser, Phenoldisulphonic acid reagent, 10% ammonia solution, crucible, water bath, nessler tube, nitrate disc.

 

Procedure: 50ml each of the water sample was poured into a rinsed crucible and evaporated in a water bath to dryness. This was allowed to cool and 15 drops of Phenoldisulphonic acid was added to each sample making sure that it touches all the area formally covered by the raw water sample in the crucible. It was allowed for about two minutes to enable re-dissolution of caked nitrate compounds in the crucible. After re-dissolution, each solution was washed with distilled water into a nessler tube. 10ml of 10% ammonia solution was added to each sample solution for colour development. This was made up to 50ml mark with distilled water. The nessler tube containing the respective sample solution was consecutively placed at the right side of nessleriser while another nessler tube containing distilled water as blank sample was placed at the left side of the nessleriser. The colour was then matched using nitrate disc. The value at which the two nessler tubes match in colour in each case was noted.

 

Determination of Sodium and Iron Contents

 

Preparation of Mixed Metal Standard Solution

 

Mixed standard solutions of sodium and iron were prepared by taking appropriate volumes of the stock solution and diluting to the mark with deionized water.

 

Determination of the Concentration

 

The hollow cathode lamp for each element to be analyzed was selected as well as the wavelength. After zeroing the instrument with the blank, the serially diluted standard solution of each element was aspirated and their absorbance recorded. A calibration curve was plotted using the standard absorbance against concentration for which the concentration of the elements in the samples were obtained automatically by the instrument.

 

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Determination of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

 

The BOD was determined using winkler titration method. The water sample was collected in a BOD bottle and incubated at 20^oC in the dark for five (5) days (Ademoroti, 1996). The BOD on day 5^th day was determined. The mass of O2 on day one (1) to day five (5) determine the BOD (mg/l) using the formula:

 

BOD5 (mg/l) =DO1-DO5 ..…………………………..……………… (5)

 

 

Determination of Dissolved Oxygen

 

Materials: BOD bottles-300ml capacity, sampling devices, lab glassware – measuring cylinder, conical flasks and Bunsen burner.

 

Procedure: Dissolved oxygen is measured using the winkler’s method. The sample was collected in BOD bottles, to which 2ml of manganous sulphate and 2ml of potassium iodide are added and sealed. This was mixed well and the precipitate allowed settling down. At this stage 2ml of conc. sulphuric acid was added, and mixed well until all the precipitate dissolves. 203ml of the sample was measured into the conical flask and titrated against 0.025N sodium thiosulphate using starch as an indicator. The end point is the change of colour from blue to colourless.

 

Calculations:

 

203ml because (200) (300)/ (200-4) = 203ml.

 

1ml of 0.025N Sodium thiosulphate = 0.2mg of Oxygen

 

 

Dissolved Oxygen (as mg/L) =	(0.2) (1000 ml of Sodium thiosulphate)  ….… (6)
	200
Microbiological Analysis of Stream and Wastewater Samples
Determination of Total Coliform

 

Apparatus/Reagents: Durham tubes, culture tubes and stands, cotton wool, pipette, glass wares, incubator, autoclave, Mac Conkey’s broth (single and double strength).

 

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Procedure: The media (Mac Conkey’s broth) were distributed into culture tubes containing inverted Durham tubes for each raw water sample in the following sequence. Five tubes, each contains 10ml of double strength broth while ten tubes, each contains 10ml of single strength broth. These were covered with cotton wool and autoclaved at 121^oC for 15 minutes. At the end of the autoclaving period, the culture tubes were examined for gas or evidence of fermentation. The tubes in which gas or evidence of fermentation occurred were noted and marked positive (+ve) while negative (-ve) were marked for no gas formation for each set as in the observation. The number of such positive tubes were counted and the probable organisms were ascertained by referring to the most probable number table (Mac Cready’stable for MPN index). Thus, the MPN index per 100ml for combination of position 5-5-3 was obtained.

 

Determination of E-Coli

 

Apparatus/Reagents: As in determination of Coliform.

 

Procedure: Sequel to the coliform test, the positive presumptive tube was picked and a portion of it inoculated into a fresh broth. This was incubated in a water bath at 45.0^oC for 24 hours. At the end of the incubation period, the Durham tube was checked for any evidence of fermentation. There was gas trapped in the tube, this indicates positive result.

 

1.7.11    Questionnaire Administration

 

Two sets of questionnaire were used for this study. The first was to obtain information on the uses of the two streams while the second was to obtain information on the prevalence of water related diseases in the study area (Appendix D and E). The first questionnaire (which was on the uses of the two streams) was targeted for the people downstream of the abattoirs who make use of the water after abattoir effluent has been released into the two streams. It was administered to 100 households. The sample size was determined by the method used by Yamane (1967) using the formular;

 

n=N/ [1+N(e)^2]      ………………………………………………………………. (7)

 

Where n= sample size

 

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N= population size

 

e= sampling error (usually 0.10, 0.05 and 0.01)

 

We used the 2006 population and housing census of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which placed the total number of households in Enugu North L.G.A at 57,615. We worked at 90 percent confidence level to get 100 households. The reason is because of financial constraints and it is acceptable. Also, because we are considering a section (and not the whole) of Enugu North L.G.A. The respondents were randomly selected.

 

On the prevalence of water related diseases in the study area, the information we have was from The Adonai Hospital in Nkpologwu. This is the only hospital that serves the community. As for the inhabitants of the New Artisan (occupied by the Hausas), they mentioned that they resort to herbal treatment for any type illness. There is no hospital within the market, as a result, there is no available information on the prevalence of water related diseases in this area.

 

1.7.12 Validation of the Instruments

 

The test instruments were subjected for validation which was done by four experts; Prof. I.A. Madu, Dr. M.C Obeta, Dr. T.C. Nzeadibe and Dr. C.K Ajaero, all from the Department of Geography, UNN. Their corrections and comments which were used to modify the questionnaire enhanced the questionnaire items in terms of appropriateness and relevance.

1.7.13 Reliability of the Instruments

 

The questionnaires were subjected to pre-test interview to establish the degree of reliability of the questions. Data obtained was used in computing the reliability using Cronbach Alpha method. The reliability coefficient of 0.87 and 0.82 were obtained for the two questionnaires. This attests to the high reliability of the instruments.

 

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1.7.14    Secondary Data

 

Secondary data was collected in the form of published and unpublished sources. These include journal articles, textbooks, conference papers, government sources, relevant past studies and the internet. They formed the theoretical basis for the work.

 

1.7.15    Data Analysis

 

Statistical Analysis

 

Percentages, mean, standard deviation, graphs and tables were used to present the results and findings of the study. This was done for ease of comprehension and to aid visual comparison.

 

Student‘t’ test was used to find whether there was significant variations between the upstream and the downstream sections of the abattoir and seasonal variations between the two streams. The analysis was done using SPSS version 20.0 and 2013 Microsoft Excel.

 

1.8 Plan of the Project

 

This research consists of six (6) chapters as follows:

 

Chapter One – Introduction: This chapter discussed the background of the research, statement research problem, aim and objectives, the study area. It contains the literature review, research methodology and plan of the project.

 

Chapter Two – Description of Asata and Owo streams and their uses: Chapter two discussed the nature and length of the two streams and the different uses they are put to. Chapter Three – To determine Water Quality Changes due to Abattoir Effluent: This chapter focused on the physical components as well as the chemical and biological compositions of the abattoir effluent and that of the two streams. The result of the abattoir effluent was compared with the FMENV guideline for effluent discharge into surface water while that of water samples were compared with the WHO guideline for drinking water. T-test was used to compare the upstream with the downstream parameters.

 

Chapter Four – Seasonal Variation in the quality of Asata and Owo streams: The quality of the two streams was discussed here taking into consideration the rainy and dry seasons. Also, t-test was used to ascertain if there was any significant difference between the parameters in rainy and dry seasons.

 

Chapter Five – Health and Environmental Implications of the Effluent Discharged into

 

the Streams: The Environmental and health implications of the effluent discharge into the

 

streams were discussed here.

 

Chapter   Six   –   Conclusion:    This   chapter   comprises   of   the   summary   of   the   study,

 

recommendations and conclusion.