ASSESSMENT OF THE KNOWLEDGE, AWARENESS AND PRACTICE OF AGROFORESTRY BY SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN KWALI AREA COUNCIL

ABSTRACT

This study examined the nature of agroforestry practices in the FCT, as an alternative to the conventional cropping systems. This is done not only as an alternative to the provision of food, but also as a strategy towards enhancing environmental stability. Furthermore, the study aimed at providing data on the practice of agroforestry in the territory and therefore highlighted the extent of agroforestry in the territory, the ownership and management of agroforestry practices, the temporal and spatial variations in the practice of agroforestry, as well as the socio- economic benefits derived from agroforestry, by individuals and communities at large. Data collection was done through reconnaissance survey, field observations and measurement as well as questionnaire- based interviews of 600 farmers. Data were also collected through personal interviews with rural community members, and extension workers. Furthermore, the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was also adopted to augment data already collected. Secondary data was also derived from different sources and utilized for the study. In the analysis of data, different methods of data summaries were utilized and in addition, simple proportions and the chi-square test were applied in the verification of the hypotheses. The study found that, more than seven out of every ten farmers were engaged in agroforestry; the agroforestry farmers were largely the indigenous populations, low income earners, of a low literate level, largely males and characterized by large family sizes; and agroforestrypracticeswerelargelythescatteredtreefarming(random mix), although some alley cropping and agro-silvo-pastoralism were also present. The major agroforestry practice thus consisted of  three components. These were made of twelve crop types, ten tree types, and local varieties of five animal types. The study also showed that ownership of agroforestry farms was tied to the land tenure system, which was largely communal. Agroforestry farms were managed largely by the farmers , with some support from the Abuja Agricultural Development Programme (AADP), in the form of supply of farm inputs, and provision of extension services. Finally, the study found that some benefits derived from agroforestry has resulted in improvement in soil fertility, increased agricultural productivity and accordingly, intake by the family and general improvement of the study area.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Agricultural production, particularly crop cultivation, has remained a significant and important component of human population, due to its strategic role of providing food supply to the generality of the entire human race. This system has however, had severe repercussions on land resources; as continuous tillage of the land easily loosens the soil and results in soil erosion and large-scale environmental degradation. Conventional cropping, and in many parts of the world, monocropping has been intensified due to geometric increases in population. This has resulted in increased demand for cultivable land, which has in turn resulted in pressure on land, and consequent cultivation of marginal lands. The breakdown of traditional systems of agriculture such as rotational bush fallow and shifting cultivation, due mainly to population pressure, has also compelled peasant farmers to continuously cultivate the land, damning the consequences of loss in soil fertility, soil erosion and reduced productivity (Beets, 1990; Kang et al, 1999). FAO (1986) noted that the pressures of growing populations in developing counties, have forced landless farmers unto soils which cannot sustain crop production, and unto slopes which cannot be safely cultivated,atleastwithtechnologiesandresourcesavailabletothefarmers. The consequences of this to the farmers have often been increased wind and soil erosion, silting, flooding and drought.

Apart from the environmental problems enumerated above, increasing demand for land has also intensified deforestation. Most traditional systems of agriculture are largely charaterised by clearance of vegetation. This clearance of unwanted woody perennial is not without repercussions, as it is confirmed to result in lower potential productivity, reduction in leaf area index, and ground water recharge, disruption of soil ecology, breakdown of nutrient cycling and increase in soil erosion, siltation of dams and reservoirs, destruction of wildlife habitats, and loss of plant and genetic diversity (World Bank, 1991). Furthermore, the pressure on trees and other plant matter due to demand for fuel wood, housing and others, have forced some rural poor families to reduce their cooking, and eventually, their cooked meals. This has also consumed a lot of human labour, as well as significant proportions of family budgets (FAO,1986).

The overall consequence of continuous cultivation and monocropping is thus large-scale environmental degradation which will eventually result in reduction in food supply and increase in level of poverty, landlessness, deprivation, and communal conflicts, to mention a few. Crop cultivation however cannot be halted, as this would cut down food supply and would be associated with consequences that are terribly severe on man and the environment.Attention has therefore shifted to ways through which available land resources could be effectively utilized so that the resources would continue to be available, and also be used in such a way as to ensure its conservation (Allan, 1965; Beets, 1990; Kang et al, 1999; Kelly and Adger, 2000). The realisation of this has thus brought into focus, the need for man to work in partnership with the environment. The land should therefore be used in such a way that would ensure its sustainability. One way of doing this is to embark on farming practices that will not only ensure the maintenance of land fertility, but also enable a balance of the entire ecosystem. Mcnamara (1973), then World Bank President expressed doubt on the relevance of development policies and approaches, which according to him, never adequately addressed the basic needs of the poorest, especially the rural poor. He therefore advocated for an agricultural system that would address the problems of the rural peasant farmers. Such a system would also help to combat land degradation, that has become a glaring characteristic of highly populated farmingcommunities.

Initial attempts to combat the problems associated with conventional cropping suggested forestry in combination, or to be practised side by side with crop cultivation, by farmers and communities. Communities and individual farmers in different countries were encouraged to engage in forestry. Government departments of forestry were empowered to support and encourageforestry projects through loans, supervision and provision of extension services to farmers and communities. Similarly, tree planting was earlier acknowledged as an approach to combating land degradation, and the introduction of trees was considered necessarily a good thing, regardless of the specific components, arrangements or management. (Beets, 1990; Nair, 1993; Kang et al, 1999). It is however, now widely acknowledged that the development of more sustainable land use systems is necessary if the overall improvement of rural productivity and sustainable land use management is to be achieved (Scheer and Muller, 1991). Forestry, apart from requiring a fairly long time before its benefits can be visible, is also associated with loss of cultivable land. Farmers, on the other hand, require immediate benefits in terms of increased food production(Young, 1989; Ogar, 1992; Wilden, 1992). Thus it has become difficult to convince farmers to invest in, and devote their land to forestry production. Although forestry has had some significant success in combating soil erosion, provision of fuelwood, and reducing overall land degradation, its adoption has nevertheless been low among farmers and communities in many parts of the world. Success has been restricted largely to government programmes which have been implemented through legislation and strict enforcement by agents. Such programmes have in most places been perceived as alien by the rural farmers and communities, without bringing about significant changes intheirlives (Lundgren, 1982; Falconer, 1990; Nair, 1993). Moreover, the failure of forestry to combat ecological problems associated with crop production therefore left much to be desired (King, 1987; Sekhwela,1990).

The failure of agricultural programmes such as forestry and the Green Revolution to combat the problems of land degradation led to the initiation of a study team by the International Development Research Centre(IDRC) of Canada. The study report  by Bene, et al (1977) recommended that priority be given to production systems which would integrate forestry, agriculture, and/or animal husbandry in order to ensure optimal use of tropical land. The Bene report was the major basis for the establishment of the International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) in 1977, and renamed International Centre for Research in Agroforestry in1991.

The integration of trees with monocultural crops, and animal rearing is considered an appropriate strategy that is capableof bringing about a balance in the ecosystem, especially in already degraded environments, and also in areas already threatened by land degradation as a result of large-scale and often uncontrolled anthropogenic activities. The combination of tree production with annual crop cultivation and sometimes with the rearing of animals on the same piece of land could enable an interaction between the combined species, which bring about stability of the soil andequallyenhance increased productivity (in terms of harvests). This system, known as agroforstry, therefore does not only ensure stability of land resources, but could also be used as a means of controlling large-scale erosion, reclaiming degraded lands, as well as improve food production (Sekwela, 1990; Stocking et al, 1990; Gordon et al, 1997).

Leakey (1994) observed that agroforestry may be considered as ‘a woody plant revolution’ that can help in easing the destruction of the earth’s forest and woodlands, rehabilitate degraded lands, reduce deforestation and allow human beings around the world to feed themselves. Similarly, Stocking, et al (1990) noted that agroforestry is seen by many as a solution to environmental problems, and as a sustainable enterprise that is especially suited to resource poor framers. This, according to them, explains why agroforestry is presently receiving urgent attention as a means of avoiding what is perceived to be the failure of rural and agricultural development. Agroforestry is especially aimed at the poor, developing country subsistence household (Nair, 1989). Spore (2000b) opined that the conservation and management of natural resources for sustainable agriculture production, for greater food security and nutrition should be the target of any agricultural policy or strategy. Agroforestry seems to be meeting this target, as there has been a remarkable increase in the number of rural development projects that are involved in agroforestry, in recent years especiallyin Africa(Kerkhof, 1990;Nair, 1993; Backes, 1999). Many of such projects are encouraged with the objective of increasing the productivity and sustainability of small holder land use systems, especially in the tropics. This enthusiasm in the adoption of agroforestry cannot be without evidence of immediate socio- economic and environmental benefits by the rural poor farmers and communities at large (Nair, 1993; Gordon, et al, 1997).

Agroforstry system, consists of several practices and different temporal and spatial combinations. Young (1989) however believes agroforestry system involves basically three processes of growth, management and interactions. Growth relates to trees, crops, pastures and animals; while management refers to the effective and efficient use of climate, water, soil, plants and animals as the case may be. Interactions on the other hand refers to the tree-crop, tree- pasture, and tree-animal associations. Furthermore, when the growth of trees is combined with cultivation and sometimes with animals, it provides an essential part of an agricultural system which facilitates both productive and protectivefunctions.

Agroforestry is therefore a comprehensive alternative to both conventional crop cultivation and forestry. As observed by Nair (1989) agroforestry is an interface between forestry and agriculture and it encompasses mixed land use practices. Such practices have been developed primarily in response to the spatial needs and conditions of developing tropical countries which have notbeensatisfactorily addressed by advances in conventional agriculture and forestry(Spore, 2000a).

The FEDRAL CAPITAL TERRETORY (FCT) of Nigeria, though primarily an administrative region, lies wholly within the Guinea Savannah ecological zone. Agroforestry practices within the region, though largely on a small scale are highlighted in this study. Heretofore, no attempt has been made to determine the agroforestry practices and examine their influences on the people and the environment of the territory.Such a study is considered necessary because of the potentials of agroforestry in curbing environmental degradation,as well as improving food supply.There is therefore the absence of data on agroforestry practices within the FCT,and this study is a step towards providing such data.

1.2                      THE STUDY PROBLEM

1.2.1                 Background to the Problem

Conventional cropping systems are the most widely practised in Nigeria, and particularly in the guinea savannah ecological zone, where the FCT lies. These systems are undoubtedly associated with large scale deforestation and consequent loss of soil nutrients, biodiversity and soil impoverishment, among others. These systems, despite their attendant problems are nevertheless important for human survival, in the light of increasing demand for food, which has resulted from increasing population growth. This situation becomesmuchmorealarminginviewofthefactthatconventionalcropping systems have remained the most dominant agricultural systems in most parts of the world (Areola, 1991).

In light of the above problems associated with conventional cropping, there is a need for farmers and agriculturalists to ensure  that agricultural systems adopted would not slow down food production, but should rather, further enhance increased soil quality and reduction in soil erosion. In other words, what is needed is a cropping system that would not only improve the socio-economic life of the people, but also be environment friendly (Falconer, 1990; Beets, 1990; Areola, 1991; Olofin, 1997). This is because the agricultural system adopted should among other things, ensure continuous crop production, and also bring about maintenance of soil quality,and eventually, sustainable ultilisation of land resources. Agroforestry may well serve as the alternative cropping system in the FCT, since the area suffers from severe devegetation resulting largely from conventional cropping.

Agroforestry is yet to be widely adopted on a large-scale in Nigeria, compared to countries in Central and East Africa. Furthermore, there is paucity of data on agroforestry systems and practices, particularly in Nigeria (Williams, 1992). Kwali area council is presently undergoing large-scale deforestation, rapid and continuous increases in land cultivation, all of which have been a consequence of population influx into the territory within the past two decades.Thecontinuousinfluxofpeopleintothisterritoryhashadsome resultant ecological problems. These include defrestration intensification of land cultivation, soil erosion, deporsition of wastes into river channels and biodiversity loss (Gaza, 1991; Abumere, 1993; Chup and Mundi, 2003). The need to adopt an establish a sustainable farming system in the territory can not be overemphasized. However, there is equally, the need to make use of reliable data in the adoption of such a system. So far, there exists no data on  agroforestry practices within the FCT. This study therefore seeks to contribution towards the provision of such data. This study has been necessitated by the need to provide data on agroforestry practices in theterritory.

1.2.2      Research Questions:

The study generally examined the agroforestry practices of the FCT, with the aim of ensuring the availability of data on this practices. The study attempts to find solutions to the following:

1. How much agroforestry is practiced in the FCT? This is considered in terms of the agroforestry species combined, and the area over which agroforestry is practiced is also bedetermined.
2. Who are the people practicing agroforestry? This will be considered in terms of the socio-demographic characteristic of the sampled agroforestryfarmers.

• How is the ownership of land and the tree tenure system of the area? This is investigated inorder find out the nature of land tenure, and its resources, especiallytrees.

1. What are the various forms of agroforestry in thisterritory?

1. What are the benefits of agroforestry, to participating farmers, as well ascommunities?
2. What are the constraints to the practice of agroforestry in theF.C.T.

1.2.3                 ProblemFormulation

Agroforestry has been described as an old practice, but a new science (Nair, 1983; Raintree, 1983; Huxley, 1986; Beets, 1990; Kang et al, 1999). The situation might not be different in the FCT as it has been practised by peasant farmers over the years, though on a small holder basis. Certain factors might have either facilitated or hindered the practice of agroforestry in thisterritory.

The natural environment of the FCT, which is entirely within the guinea savannah ecological zone, is characterized by a combination of trees and grasses in different proportions. This readily provides conducive conditions for the combined cultivation of annual crops and perennial crops, or trees. Furthermore, the availability of grasses, shrubs and fodder from woody species further promotes the rearing of animals (Areola, 1991). The natural environment therefore favours agroforestry and the peasant farmers might have easily adopted itnaturally.

Secondly, the climate of this territory is marked by wet and dry seasons which is often characterized by rainfall shortages in some years; and surpluses in other years. Whenever either occurs, ashasbeenthecaseinhistory(AlfordandTouley,1975;Mabogunje, 1977; Abumere, 1993), it often results in crop failures. Furthermore, the menace of crop pests and diseases also occur within this environment, and equally leads to crop losses (Mabogunje, 1977, Gaza 1991). The effects of these natural disasters have been enormous. Since these have occurred repeatedly over the years, the adoption of agroforestry practices by the peasant farmers might have been a response, as a means to ensure alternative sources of sustaining their families (Mabogunje, 1977; Gaza,1991; Abumere,1993).

Thirdly, the FCT, until recently, was generally, inaccessible and lacked basic infrastructure (Mabogunje 1977; Gaza, 1991; Abumere, 1993). Presently, most of the rural areas are still in this condition. These have contributed negatively to result in wastage of farm products especially during harvest periods, and consequent loss of income to the farmers. The adoption of agroforestry might have been an attempt by the peasant farmers to ensure security against crop losses and wastage, as the agroforestry products will provide alternatives to food, income and other uses.

On the other hand, some factors might have hindered the adoption and practice of agroforestry in the FCT. One of such factors is the land tenure system. In the FCT, the land tenure system is traditional and communal (Mabogunje, 1977; Gaza, 1991). Despite the promulgation of the Land Use Decree of 1978 which vested all landinthe FCTto  theFederal  Government, land occupation and acquisition in FCT has remained largely traditional (Ejaro, 2000). This communal ownership of land especially in the rural parts of the territory has encouraged land fragmentation, and in some cases, the “slash and burn” system which is associated with large-scale deforestation (Buchanam and Pugh, 1955; Allan, 1965; Beets, 1990). Furthermore, immigrant settlers of the FCT have problems in acquiring land for cultivation, and they do so only on a temporary basis. These factors have all combined to hinder the large-scale adoption of agroforestry in theterritory.

Secondly, the inaccessible nature of most parts of the FCT coupled with the absence of basic infrastructure, have for a long time perpetrated poverty within the territory (Gaza 1991; Abumere, 1993). The perpetration of poverty has therefore been an obstacle to farmers’ investment in agriculture generally in termsof procurement of inputs, and particularly the procurement oftree seedlings and animal species for agroforestrypractices.

1.3       AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

This study seeks to generate data on agroforestry practices within the Kwali Area Council. This is done with the belief that reliable information on these pactices would be made available through the findings of the study. Specifically, the following constitute the objectives of study:

1. Determining the socio-demographic characteristics of people involved in agroforestry within theF.C.T.
2. Establishing the ownership of land and the tree tenure system of thearea.

• Establishing the forms of agroforestry pactised within the FCT.

1. Determining the benefits of agroforestry to participating farmers and their communities atlarge.
2. Establishing the constraints to the  large scale adoption and practice of agroforestry in the territory; and how such constraints can beovercome.

1.4       STUDYHYPOTHESES

The following constitute the hypotheses for this study:

1. Agroforestry is widely practised in the Kwali Area Council.
2. There are significant spatial variations in intensity of agroforestry practices in theFCT.

1.5       SCOPE OFSTUDY

This thesis focused on the study of the agroforestry practices in the Kwali Area Council of the FCT of Nigeria. Emphasis was therefore on the practices that constitute agroforestry, within this territory. Thus the people involved in agroforestry are determined. The prompters of agroforestry in the area are also investigated. These include the instigators, the initiators and the promoters of agroforestry in the area. Also determined is how the farmers carry out their activities, what are the different combinations, thebenefitsthe farmers and their communities derive from agroforestry practices. Furthermore, those problems hindering the adoption of, and investment in agroforestry, are also highlighted. Significantly, the outcome of the study would provide data on the practice of agroforestry within the area, and could stimulate further studies.

1.6       JUSTIFICATION OFSTUDY

The Kwali Area Council is mainly an administrative area which lies entirely within the guinea savannah ecological zone. The establishment of this territory, and subsequent movement of government establishments into it in the 1980s and 1990s has had the consequence of population influx into the area. This influx has been accompanied with intensification of anthropogenic activities particularly deforestation, cultivation, and large-scale building and construction activities (Gaza, 1991; Chup and Mundi, 2000). The consequence of all these is the environmental problems that now characterize the territory (Chup, 2000a; Saromi, 2004). These environmental problems will continue to escalate if the present rate of population influx and consequent environmental changes continue unabated. The entire territory is therefore under threat of large- scale environmental problems, such as deforestation, soil erosion and gullying, land impoverishment, flooding and biodiversity loss, among others (Gaza, 1991; Chup and Mundi, 2000; Saromi,2004).

The sustainability of the agricultural system of the territory might be under threat and in need of urgent and deliberate effortsto halt the threat to food supply and environmental stability. The best option is to evolve an agricultural system that will not only increase food supply to meet increasing demand from an increasingly growing population, but will equally enhance sustainable usage of land resources. The study of the agroforestry practices in the territory is therefore very necessary for a clearer understanding of the system in the area. The need to overcome the paucity of data in the territory is a motivating factor in the choice of this study. So far there has been no documention of the agroforestry practices of this territory. Furthermore, the FCT represents a previously unexplored area that is now threatened by severe environmental problems which are largely a response to large-scale andoften uncontrolled human activities, all in the quest to improve human habitation of the environment. Knowledge of the agroforestry practices of this territory would serve as reference materials for other areas with similar characteristics (within or outside this ecological zone) or under similar developmentprogrammes.

1.7                       CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1.7.1                 Landuse and Population Relationship

Human existence worldwide has largely been as a consequence of his ability to interact with his environment. This interaction, though in many forms, has been mainly exploitative. This in the sense that man’s ability to exploit and utilize the natural resourceswithinhisenvironmenthasbeenstrategicnotonlytohissurvival, but also his development. Thus the higher the level of development or civilisation, the greater the ability of man to exploit the natural environment. Very prominent and effective form of human exploitation of the environment has been agriculture or farming.

Man has been engaged in crop cultivation since time immemorial, starting from the discovery of sedentary life. Human interaction with the environment through cultivation was not associated with any significant environmental consequence until the last century (Alan, 1965). This is because the capability of an area to support people at a particular standard of living (known as carrying capacity) was quite low in most ecosystems (Beats, 1990). This is because there was no population pressure in most areas, and as such the environment was capable of naturally regenerating and coping with the human insults (Areola, 1991). As long as this situation prevails, carrying capacity remains low and there would be no significant consequences of human exploitation on the environment (Beats 1990; Bender and Smith, 1997). This explains why most places in Africa were able to practise farming systems that allowed for natural regeneration of theenvironment.

Increases in population have significantly affected landuse worldwide. In Africa for instance, population pressure has been witnessed in almost all parts, and this has led to over-exploitation, reduction and gradual disappearance of fallow periods, which have combined to result in environmental degradation. Thus population pressure promotes intensification of landuse, and thus promotes over-exploitation which results in environmental degradation. In the third world countries for instance, population explosion has been a major source of concern; because demographic changes reveal that while population increase has been up to 3% per annum,food production has been only about 1.5% (Bender and Smith, 1997). The reverse has been the case in the developed countries. This situation in the third world countries led to the continuous exploitation of the land resources; since people are so much in need of food and fuel, and are “forced to destroy their environment in an attempt to delay their destruction” (Beets, 1990). In other words, emphasis is usually on immediate survival rather than future environmental consequences. The preoccupation of farmers is usually with production rather than conservation, and it seems logical that all conservation efforts should be accompanied with interventions that simultaneously increase production, and total output. To the farmer therefore, conservation practices must be suitable for his land, his crops and his livestock. Such plans should therefore be aimed at enhancing adaptation to forces that bring about sustainable environmental or ecosystem equilibrium.

1.7.2                 Adaptation

Adaptation refers to adjustments or changes through which organisms become fitted to an environment(SmithersandSmit,1997a). It could thus be said to be the adjustments made by communities in response to unfavourable conditions within their environment. As noted by Watson, et al (1996) and Smit, et al (1998), adaptation could be spontaneous or planned or may be in response to or in anticipation of change in conditions. Whichever from it takes, adaptation involves processes which are always in response to some stimuli (i.e. forces and conditions), and must provide answers to questions such as adaptation to what, who and what adapts, and how would adaptation occur?

Fig. 1:       Anatomy of Adaptation Adopted from Smit et al(1998)

The prevailing conditions in most African countries have acted as stimuli to necessitate adaptation. This is in order to resuscitatethe deteriorating productivity of land resources, which as already noted, are mainly the consequence of rapid increases in population. This rapid increases in population have resulted in over utilization of soil resources in some areas. The situation has brought about the inability of most areas to meet their carrying capacity (Allan, 1965; Beets, 1990).

A close look at the Guinea Savannah ecological zone and especially the FCT reveals the prevalence of large scale anthropogenic activities, which are a direct consequence of growing population. This has brought about significant changes in farming activities and systems, especially the addition of soil improving inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Gaza, 1991; Chup and Mundi, 2000). These anthropogenic activities have thus provided the stimuli for adaptation in the FCT ecosystem. This adaptation is necessary because there are already, existing evidences of environmental deterioration in the territory (Chup, 2000a; Balogun, 2001). The adaptation to be embarked upon should therefore be well planned in order to avoid a future calamity. The FCT is vulnerable to large-scale changes, and eventual ecosystem break down if the present trend continuous unabated. The local farmers are more concerned with production rather than conservation; as no production will result in immediate hunger, while no conservation will have very little or no immediate tangible effects (Beets,1990).

Adaptation is believed to be most successful when natural resources are effectively managed and utilized to cope with any forces or stimuli within a system. In addition, adaptation should also be planned to ensure sustainable utilization of resources of an area (Beets, 1990, Kang et al, 1999; Kelly and Adger, 2000). Agroforestry in the FCT is an effective means of utilizing natural resources to cope with environmental problems, as well as enhancing sustainable use of land resources. Thus if well planned, it may be a very good tool towards adaptation in the territory.

1.7.3                 Models of Adaptation

Three approaches or models of adaptation processes have been mentioned in the literature. These models were intended for adaptation to climate change, but could also be used for adaptation arising from other forces or stimuli. These models include the conceptual model of adaptation; the numerical model, and the empirical adaptation studies model.

The Numerical Input Assessment Model

This model makes use of information on adaptation to estimate future impacts of stimulating forces in ecosystems or environments, or territories, as the case may be. Initial effects of adaptation are assessed and used as data to predict future or long term inputs. These models which have been used by Leemans (1992), Yohe et al (1996) and Tol et al (1997) among others, relies much on assumptions about when, how and to what extent adaptations occur, they are based on theoreticalprinciples.

The Empirical Adaptation Studies’ Model

This model is used to enable better understanding of the nature and processes of adaptation by observation, documentation, and reconstruction of current and past adaptations to stimulating forces. These models have been developed and used by Mcdonald et al (1993), Glantz (1988), and Smithers and Smit (1997b). The major draw back of this model is the fact that it requires a very long time (often running to hundreds and thousands of years) for observation anddocumentations.

The Conceptual Model

This has been developed by UNEP (1996), Smit et al (1996) and Klein and Nicholls (1998), and it specifies sequential relationships and feed backs, such as stimuli, sensitivity and vulnerability of systems, short term or autonomous adaptation, initial impacts, long term or strategic adaptations and net residual adaptation. In this model, there is a conceptualization of adaptation processes, sequences and relationships and interconnections. This could further provide the framework or structure for the numerical analysis of adaptation processes (Smit et al,1998).

This model is considered appropriate for this study as the large-scale anthropogenic activities which are fast bringing about a break down of the ecosystem balance, and the large scale adoption of agroforestry practices do not only fit into the sequences provided by the model, but are also likely to bring about regeneration of the ecosystem, and eventual adaptation.

Fig. 2: Conceptual model of adaptation;

applicable to the Kwali Area Council